Fighting for a Place in America

Angel Island, located in San Francisco Bay, was the site where immigration policy was enforced during the Asian exclusion years of 1910-1940. It represents a counterpoint to Ellis Island in American immigration history.

Jobs in America were plentiful, and immigrants looking for a better life saw America as a land of opportunity. However, with too many unskilled laborers, wages were low and working conditions were poor. Immigrants, particularly Chinese, were wrongly blamed for these conditions.

In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act — the only US Iaw to prevent immigration and naturalization based on race — that restricted Chinese immigration for the next sixty years. This trend soon expanded to other Asian nations and remained in place in many states until 1967.

The Act was the result of years of resentment toward the Chinese. This animosity rose out of the California Gold Rush, when Chinese miners became regular scapegoats among the community. They were seemingly easy targets with their vastly different looks, style of dress, and “foreign” behaviors.

The Chinese Exclusion Act allowed entry only to Chinese of particular professions and banned laborers. Angel Island was used to detain potential immigrants while verifying their skills. Immigrants from all countries came to Angel Island but those from Asia were refused more often than Europeans.

Immigrants of Asian descent were often ill-treated at Angel Island, especially compared to European immigrants. They were forced to stay in prison-like cages and subjected to hours of interrogation. These interviews and cross-checks sometimes took months and were notoriously difficult to pass.

The introduction of the Exclusion Act did not deliver on its promise to raise wages or improve working conditions for the white American worker. In fact, Japanese workers took the place of the Chinese. In 1924, the Act was expanded to exclude workers from all eastern Asian countries.

After different waves of Asian immigration, the question became, what rights would their new place of residence allow them? To what extent would the “American dream” be extended to these new faces? 

The Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution’s 14th Amendment granted birthright citizenship to all persons born in the US, despite race or nationality. This means that a person born on American soil is automatically an American citizen, regardless of their parents’ immigration status.

Bhagat Singh Thind came to the US in 1913 and served in the US Army in WWI. Granted citizenship in 1918, it was revoked 4 days later. The Supreme Court argued that due to racial differences, the "great body of our people" would reject Indian assimilation. The act then expanded to include almost all east Asian nations.

Born in Japan, Takao Ozawa had lived in America for 20+ years when his citizenship was revoked. He argued that the Japanese fell under the category “free white person,” classification used to approve citizenship. The Supreme Court found the term only applied to those of “Caucasian race”.

During World War II (December 1942-1945), between 110,000 and 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living in America were forced to relocate to internment camps like Manzanar following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. 

Over 60% were American citizens, many of them born and raised in America with no ties at all to Japan. Even people who were as little as 1/16 Japanese were interned into forced labor camps.  

A national landmark, Manzanar lies about 230 miles north of Los Angeles. Site conditions were harsh, with temperatures often soaring over 100°F and constant strong wind. Buildings provided inadequate shelter, and the camp was often overcrowded, imprisoning just over 10,000 Japanese-Americans at one point.

Facilities at Manzanar were incredibly poor. Families were provided with a 20–foot by 25–foot living space in makeshift tarpaper shelters, with only cloth to separate each living site. Bathrooms were not segregated, nor were there any partitions surrounding showers. 

Japanese-Americans were told to pack bedding, clothes, and toiletries and sell everything else. Forced to sell houses, cars, and personal belongings, often for unfair prices, families moved into camps for an unknown length of time. Many who spent 3+ years detained had to start their lives over upon release.

The “domino theory” posited that if one country in a region fell under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. This led to American military forces being deployed in defense of the South Korean and South Vietnamese states, who were trying to resist communist rule. 

After the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, South Vietnamese people crowded on to boats and planes to escape persecution from a communist regime. Vietnamese Americans are the 4th largest Asian American ethnic group after Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, and Indian Americans. 

Refugees fleeing Vietnam felt they had no choice but to escape by sea to countries like Indonesia, Singapore, and Thailand. These crossings were very treacherous. Overcrowded, poorly equipped boats were no match for the massive oceans, storms, and even pirates. An estimated 10–70% of refugees died at sea.

Even if Vietnamese refugees were rescued by a freighter ship or somehow survived the awful conditions, they were not guaranteed a warm welcome by the West. The Orderly Departure Program required Vietnamese citizens to return to Vietnam and wait for assessment before being allowed to seek asylum in the US. 

Although the US helped South Vietnam in the war against communist North Vietnam, Americans were divided over whether to welcome Vietnamese refugees. President Jimmy Carter passed the resolution despite the opposition from the general public.

Throughout US history, we often forget about Asian American involvement in the civil rights movement. From African American civil rights to instigating labor movements, Asian immigrants and influences have shaped American civil rights history. 

The Asian civil rights movement greatly admired Martin Luther King’s non-violent method of protesting, which in itself was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s teaching.

Filipino American labor leader Larry Itliong joined forces with Cesar Chavez to protest for an increase in the minimum wage. Momentum had picked up, and soon AWOC (Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee) and NFWA (National Farmers Workers Association) joined into a single union.

The origin of Latino civil rights started in the early 1900s when the Japanese-Mexican Labor Association (JMLA) was formed. Later, it would be the first union to win a strike against the California agricultural industry, which had already become a powerful force.

Between 2000 and 2015, the Asian population in the US grew 72%, from 11.9 million to 20.4 million.

Of the top 25 most common languages spoken in America, 10 of them are Asian languages. There were an estimated 22.9 million Asian Pacific Islander Americans living in the US in 2016.

Throughout US history, Asian Americans have been subject to prejudiced exclusion laws, inequality, and biased practices, often unfairly targeted during economic recessions. Today’s American government recognizes and celebrates Asian American culture, designating May as Asian Pacific Heritage Month.

Asian Pacific Heritage Month acknowledges and honors Asian Americans and their contributions to American society. Today, there are many successful Asian Americans in all aspects of the workforce including business leaders, athletes, entertainers, and journalists.