Isolation levels overview

This page introduces different isolation levels and explains how they work in Spanner.

Isolation level is a database property that defines which data is visible to concurrent transactions. Spanner supports two of the isolation levels defined in the ANSI/ISO SQL standard: serializable and repeatable read . When you create a transaction, you need to choose the most appropriate isolation level for the transaction. The chosen isolation level lets individual transactions prioritize various factors such as latency, abort rate, and whether the application is susceptible to the effects of data anomalies. The best choice depends on the specific demands of the workload.

Serializable isolation

Serializable isolation is the default isolation level in Spanner. Under serializable isolation, Spanner provides you with the strictest concurrency-control guarantees for transactions, which is called external consistency . Spanner behaves as if all transactions were executed sequentially, even though Spanner actually runs them across multiple servers (and possibly in multiple datacenters) for higher performance and availability than single server databases. In addition, if one transaction completes before another transaction starts to commit, Spanner guarantees that clients always see the results of transactions in sequential order. Intuitively, Spanner is similar to a single-machine database.

The trade-off is that Spanner might abort transactions if a workload has high read-write contention, where many transactions read data that another transaction is updating, due to the fundamental nature of serializable transactions. However, this is a good default for an operational database. It helps you to avoid tricky timing issues that usually only arise with high concurrency. These issues are difficult to reproduce and troubleshoot. Therefore, serializable isolation provides the strongest protection against data anomalies. If a transaction needs to be retried, there might be an increase in latency due to transaction retries.

Repeatable read isolation

In Spanner, repeatable read isolation is implemented using a technique commonly known as snapshot isolation. Repeatable read isolation in Spanner ensures that all read operations within a transaction see a consistent, or strong, snapshot of the database as it existed at the start of the transaction. It also guarantees that concurrent writes on the same data only succeed if there are no conflicts. This approach is beneficial in high read-write conflict scenarios where numerous transactions read data that other transactions might be modifying. By using a fixed snapshot, repeatable read avoids the performance impacts of the more restrictive serializable isolation level. Reads can execute without acquiring locks and without blocking concurrent writes, which results in fewer aborted transactions that might need to be retried due to potential serialization conflicts. In use cases where your clients already run everything in a read-write transaction, and it is difficult to redesign and use read-only transactions, you can use repeatable read isolation to improve the latency of your workloads.

Unlike serializable isolation, repeatable read might lead to data anomalies if your application relies on specific data relationships or constraints that aren't enforced by the database schema, especially when the order of operations matter. In such cases, a transaction might read data, make decisions based on that data, and then write changes that violate those application-specific constraints, even if the database schema constraints are still met. This happens because repeatable read isolation allows concurrent transactions to proceed without strict serialization. One potential anomaly is known as a write skew , which arises from a particular kind of concurrent update, where each update is independently accepted, but their combined effect violates application data integrity. For example, imagine there's a hospital system where at least one doctor needs to be on-call at all times, and doctors can request to be taken off-call for a shift. Under repeatable read isolation, if both Dr. Richards and Dr. Smith are scheduled to be on-call for the same shift and concurrently try to request to be taken off-call, each request succeeds in parallel. This is because both transactions read that there is at least one other doctor who is scheduled to be on-call at the start of the transaction, causing data anomaly if the transactions succeed. On the other hand, using serializable isolation prevents these transactions from violating the constraint because serializable transactions will detect potential data anomalies and abort the transaction. Thereby ensuring application consistency by accepting higher abort rates.

In the previous example, you can use the SELECT FOR UPDATE clause in repeatable read isolation . The SELECT…FOR UPDATE clause verifies if the data it read at the chosen snapshot remains unchanged at commit time. Similarly, DML statements and mutations , that read data internally to ensure the integrity of the writes, also verify that the data remains unchanged at commit time.

For more information, see Use repeatable read isolation .

Example use case

The following example demonstrates the benefit of using repeatable read isolation to eliminate locking overhead. Both Transaction 1 and Transaction 2 run in repeatable read isolation.

Transaction 1 establishes a snapshot timestamp when the SELECT statement runs.

  -- Transaction 1 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T1 
 SELECT 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 /*-----------+------------------* 
 | AlbumId    | MarketingBudget  | 
 +------------+------------------+ 
 | 1          | 50000            | 
 | 2          | 100000           | 
 | 3          | 70000            | 
 | 4          | 80000            | 
 *------------+------------------*/ 
 

  -- Transaction 1 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T1 
 SELECT 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 /*-----------+------------------* 
 | albumid    | marketingbudget  | 
 +------------+------------------+ 
 | 1          | 50000            | 
 | 2          | 100000           | 
 | 3          | 70000            | 
 | 4          | 80000            | 
 *------------+------------------*/ 
 

Then, Transaction 2 establishes a snapshot timestamp after Transaction 1 begins but before it commits. Since Transaction 1 hasn't updated the data, the SELECT query in Transaction 2 reads the same data as Transaction 1 .

  -- Transaction 2 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T2 > T1 
 SELECT 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 Albums 
  
 ( 
 SingerId 
 , 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 50000 
 ); 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 2 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T2 > T1 
 SELECT 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 albums 
  
 ( 
 singerid 
 , 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 50000 
 ); 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

Transaction 1 continues after Transaction 2 has committed.

  -- Transaction 1 continues 
 SELECT 
  
 SUM 
 ( 
 MarketingBudget 
 ) 
  
 as 
  
 UsedBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 /*-----------* 
 | UsedBudget | 
 +------------+ 
 | 300000     | 
 *------------*/ 
 

  -- Transaction 1 continues 
 SELECT 
  
 SUM 
 ( 
 marketingbudget 
 ) 
  
 AS 
  
 usedbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 /*-----------* 
 | usedbudget | 
 +------------+ 
 | 300000     | 
 *------------*/ 
 

The UsedBudget value that Spanner returns is the sum of the budget read by Transaction 1 . This sum reflects only the data present at the T1 snapshot. It doesn't include the budget that Transaction 2 added, because Transaction 2 committed after Transaction 1 established snapshot T1 . Using repeatable read means that Transaction 1 didn't have to abort even though Transaction 2 modified the data read by Transaction 1 . However, the result Spanner returns might or might not be the intended outcome.

Read-write conflicts and correctness

In the previous example, if the data queried by the SELECT statements in Transaction 1 was used to make subsequent marketing budget decisions, there might be correctness issues.

For example, assume there is a total budget of 400,000 . Based on the result from the SELECT statement in Transaction 1 , we might think there is 100,000 left in the budget and decide to allocate it all to AlbumId = 4 .

  -- Transaction 1 continues.. 
 UPDATE 
  
 Albums 
 SET 
  
 MarketingBudget 
  
 = 
  
 MarketingBudget 
  
 + 
  
 100000 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
  
 AND 
  
 AlbumId 
  
 = 
  
 4 
 ; 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 1 continues.. 
 UPDATE 
  
 albums 
 SET 
  
 marketingbudget 
  
 = 
  
 marketingbudget 
  
 + 
  
 100000 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
  
 AND 
  
 albumid 
  
 = 
  
 4 
 ; 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

Transaction 1 commits successfully, even though Transaction 2 already allocated 50,000 of the remaining 100,000 budget to a new album AlbumId = 5 .

You can use the SELECT...FOR UPDATE syntax to validate that certain reads of a transaction are unchanged during the lifetime of the transaction in order to guarantee the correctness of the transaction. In the following example using SELECT...FOR UPDATE , Transaction 1 aborts at commit time.

  -- Transaction 1 continues.. 
 SELECT 
  
 SUM 
 ( 
 MarketingBudget 
 ) 
  
 AS 
  
 TotalBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 FOR 
  
 UPDATE 
 ; 
 /*-----------* 
 | TotalBudget | 
 +------------+ 
 | 300000     | 
 *------------*/ 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 1 continues.. 
 SELECT 
  
 SUM 
 ( 
 marketingbudget 
 ) 
  
 AS 
  
 totalbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 FOR 
  
 UPDATE 
 ; 
 /*-------------* 
 | totalbudget | 
 +-------------+ 
 | 300000      | 
 *-------------*/ 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

For more information, see Use SELECT FOR UPDATE in repeatable read isolation .

Write-write conflicts and correctness

By using repeatable read isolation level, concurrent writes on the same data only succeed if there are no conflicts.

In the following example, Transaction 1 establishes a snapshot timestamp at the first SELECT statement.

  -- Transaction 1 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T1 
 SELECT 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 1 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T1 
 SELECT 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 

The following Transaction 2 reads the same data as Transaction 1 and inserts a new item. Transaction 2 successfully commits without waiting or aborting.

  -- Transaction 2 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T2 (> T1) 
 SELECT 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 FROM 
  
 Albums 
 WHERE 
  
 SingerId 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 Albums 
  
 ( 
 SingerId 
 , 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 50000 
 ); 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 2 
 BEGIN 
 ; 
 -- Snapshot established at T2 (> T1) 
 SELECT 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 FROM 
  
 albums 
 WHERE 
  
 singerid 
  
 = 
  
 1 
 ; 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 albums 
  
 ( 
 singerid 
 , 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 50000 
 ); 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

Transaction 1 continues after Transaction 2 has committed.

  -- Transaction 1 continues 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 Albums 
  
 ( 
 SingerId 
 , 
  
 AlbumId 
 , 
  
 MarketingBudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 30000 
 ); 
 -- Transaction aborts 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

  -- Transaction 1 continues 
 INSERT 
  
 INTO 
  
 albums 
  
 ( 
 singerid 
 , 
  
 albumid 
 , 
  
 marketingbudget 
 ) 
  
 VALUES 
  
 ( 
 1 
 , 
  
 5 
 , 
  
 30000 
 ); 
 -- Transaction aborts 
 COMMIT 
 ; 
 

Transaction 1 aborts since Transaction 2 already committed an insertion to the AlbumId = 5 row.

What's next

• Learn how to Use repeatable read isolation level .

• Learn how to Use SELECT FOR UPDATE in repeatable read isolation .

• Learn how to Use SELECT FOR UPDATE in serializable isolation .

• Learn more about Spanner serializability and external consistency, see TrueTime and external consistency .