■(16-2)英語訳論文『夢幻能の劇構造と白山信仰との関係考』(2)
Noh actor Kunio Konparu once questioned whether the fact that the Chusonji Golden Hall is a "sheath hall (鞘堂)“ and its similarity to modern Noh theaters, which also have double roofs, are a complete coincidence. I suspect that this was probably a sharp intuition from him as a performer, rather than a Noh researcher. I also use "nesting" as a keyword to examine the theatrical structure of Mugen Noh, and in this section I am trying to examine the conceptual similarity between the Amida Hall and the Noh stage.
However, I do not think that the current double-roofed Noh theaters retain the same vein of faith and thought. Modern Noh theaters are merely a roof on top of another, and the large roof covering the Noh stage can be thought of as something like the all-weather Tokyo Dome.
Yamazaki Gakudo says, "A Noh stage (including the dressing room area) is always a separate space independent of other buildings, and this has been an inherent feature since the theater's creation. (Omitted) The fact that the Noh stage within a Noh theater is generally a separate building, standing under the lid of the main building, is nothing but a reflection of the original spirit that continues to this day."
As Yamazaki believes, the current Noh stage and the building that covers it are separate buildings that have no relation whatsoever in terms of the dynamism of the architectural structure.
However, the idea that the Noh stage's true purpose is to be a separate building must be considered the view of modern people who have lost the complete view of the world of faith that people around the Middle Ages had.
There is a structural style in shrine and temple architecture called "sou-do (双堂).” This is the gongen-zukuri style (権現造り) of shrines. In this style, the main hall covers the palace where the deity is enshrined, and a worship hall is placed in front of it, and the two halls are connected by a low-floor stone hall. The ridges of the hipped roofs of both halls are covered with a large roof called Ishino-ma Ryosage-dukuri (石之間の両下造り), creating a nested structure. It is very similar to the relationship between the Noh stage and the viewing area in a Noh theater.
However, just as with Gongen-zukuri, it is enough to know that the architectural philosophy supported by faith is due to the fact that the floor heights of the main hall and the worship hall are completely different, and in many cases the height of the base (ground) itself is also different.Furthermore, by uniting the existence of such different phases of worlds with a large roof, it is possible to see that they are recognized as a whole world picture.
Now, I picture in the center of the Noh stage, although it is invisible to the eye, the inner sanctuary of the Buddhist hall, with a canopy over the shumidan (須弥壇) where the Buddha is enshrined, and in front and behind it the worship hall and rear apse.
In Mugen Noh, gods, Buddhas and spirits (often vengeful spirits) manifest in the inner sanctuary.
The architectural feature of placing the sanctuary in the center of the building is not at all common to Buddhist temples in China, Korea, India, Tibet, and other countries. Even in Japan, Buddhist halls up until the mid-Heian period were closer to those in China and Korea in terms of the location of the butsudan (仏壇).
Placing the sanctuary in the center is a style of Buddhist hall with a ikken-square (about 180cm square) plan, which is seen in many examples in Amida halls.
The principal image is enshrined in the main building, which is ikken-square in the center, and ikken eaves area is provided around it to create a ritual space. In other words, the plan of the entire building is sanken square (about 540cm square).
Amida halls were built in great numbers from the mid-Heian period onwards, based on Pure Land faith. People chanted “Onri Edo” (厭離穢土： Abandoning the Impure Land), Gongu Joudo (欣求浄土：Seeking the Pure Land)" and sought to create a Pure Land (the afterlife) in this world.
The one-bay, four-sided Amida Hall was modeled after the Jōgyo-do Hall (常行堂) of Tendai temples, where people would perform Jogyō-zanmai (constant meditation). Jogyō-zanmai is a practice in which people circumambulate around the statue of Amida Buddha while chanting the name of the Buddha, and the building required a centripetal structure. The Amida Hall was thought to have been an architectural form that possessed the rationality required for religious ceremonies.
However, regardless of the religion, the temple reflects and imitates the structure of the universe determined by the religion. The Amida Hall is thought to go beyond the rationality required for religious ceremonies and embody the relational structure between this world and the other world in the form of an architectural structure.
The Golden Hall of Chusonji Temple (中尊寺金色堂) is the oldest remaining structure (1124) that still conveys the basic form of a one-bay, four-sided hall. Shortly after its construction, this hall was converted into a sheath hall. Its original structure is unknown. It has since been rebuilt or restored once or twice, and the Old Sheathe Hall before it was replaced with its current reinforced concrete structure dates from the mid-Muromachi period.
The Golden Hall encases the inner sanctuary with a shumidai (pedestal) in the prayer hall (outer sanctuary).
Its structure consists of wrapped pillars at the four corners of the inner sanctuary, with mume (無目), nageshi (長押), and kashiranuki (頭貫：railings) around the top, mituto (三斗：three squares) at the top of the pillars and a kaerumata (蛙股：frog-legged bracket) in the centre of each mitto.
The ceiling is folded up all around, and each of the four sides is divided into three spaces with latticework, and further kumiko is placed between the lattice spaces, with a canopy attached in the centre.
The relationship between the inner sanctuary and the outer sanctuary is "nested," and it can be said that they are truly built in terms of architectural mechanics (Figure).
Figure ： Fujiwara no Kiyohira built this hall as his own funeral hall.
As is well known, the mummies of four generations of the Fujiwara clan are enshrined in this hall. The interior of the hall is decorated with advanced craft techniques, reminiscent of the Pure Land described in the Amitabha Sutra. Kiyohira would have wanted to confirm while he was still alive where he would go after death. Moreover, he must have had a strong desire for rebirth (弥勒下生信仰：Faith in Maitreya's descent from the dead). It is also noteworthy that Kaga Hakusan was enshrined in Hiraizumi at an early date.
In front of the main hall of Chusonji Hakusan Shrine there is a magnificent Noh stage with a gabled roof and cypress bark roof. The current stage was rebuilt in 1853, and is similar in form to the North Noh stage of Nishi Honganji (built in the Tensho era, from1573 to 1591). The geographical location of the Noh stage is said to be based on the idea of "the four gods being in harmony" and the ideas of "the Pure Land in the West" and "the Eastward spread of Buddhism" from the Pure Land Sutra. However, the Noh stage at Chusonji Hakusan Shrine faces the main hall of Hakusan Shrine from the side, i.e., north-northeast, in accordance with its location on the mountain.
The place where Hakusan Hime-no-kami resides is the underworld. The bridge clearly connects the other world (the other shore) with this world (this shore), and in the center of the stage, which could be called a Buddhist temple on this shore, it gives the impression of a boundary between the living and the dead, or a special realm where gods and Buddhas are manifested.
The Chusonji Ennen performance on this Noh stage is said to be a continuation of Sarugaku Noh from the Kamakura period.
After the ritual, there is Futofuto Kagura (太太神楽), Shishimai (獅子舞：lion dance), Kaikou (開口：opening of the mouth), Norito (祝詞：prayer), Wakaonna-no-mai (若女の舞：young women's dance), Roujyo-no-mai (老女の舞：old women's dance), and Noh and Kyogen from the Kita and Izumi schools.
The performer performs the norito in kariginu-hanhakama-idetati (狩衣半袴出立) outfit and a hitamen (直面：without Noh mask), but with black hair hanging down from the crown to cover her face, presents a sacred offering and recites the norito as if chanting a sutra. Given her unusual appearance, she may be the grim reaper.
The young woman comes out from the kiridoguchi entrance decorated with bamboo paintings, leading her guardians, and dances quietly, tapping her feet and swinging bells up and down. She is wearing a maeore-eboshi hat (前折烏帽子) and hitoe- kariginu-nagashi-idetachi (単狩衣流出立：a Single kariginu garment). The kariginu outfit signifies that she is a goddess. The bamboo painting represents a barrier, and the side of the kiridoguchi entrance on the stage side is the boundary between the living and the dead. This means that the young woman is likely Kukurihime. Kukurihime is now exorcising the impurity of death in order to ensure the rebirth and purification of the old woman who will appear next.
The old woman comes out from the bridge, her right sleeve pulled by the prayer. Her waist is bent severely. After receiving the bell and fan from the prayer, she stomps her feet vigorously while still bending over, striking the bell. Then she suddenly jumps up. I see in this gesture the old woman gradually becoming filled with life.
You could say that the same meaning as in the Hakusan Ceremony in Toyone village, Oku-Mikawa, lives on in the elegant dance of Chusonji Ennen.
It is rather the idea of modern art to seek liberation from meaning and recognize the highest meaning in meaninglessness. We may be beginning to forget that there was a time when there was no such thing as pure art.
"Bamboo of Sarugaku” and its Rise and Fall
The following is written in Teika's Meigetsuki (藤原定家、明月記) about the Sangaku performance held at Sento Imperial Palace (仙洞御所) on August 17, 1212 (2nd year of Kenreki).
"More than 10 Shiso (monks) miscellaneous performers, one Zaike (child as the source says), Imayo, Shirabyoshi, and Sangaku were performed. The stage was a two-ken square hall facing east, with a bamboo pillar and pine roof, built by Tadatsuna Ason, (omitted)."
In other words, the stage was one-ken (about 300cm) square. At that time, one ken was five shaku (one shaku shorter than today: one Shake is about 30cm). Bamboo pillars were erected at each corner, and a roof was erected and covered with pine. This was not a permanent stage, but Tadatsuna Ason was in charge of constructing it for this occasion. It can be understood as a full-scale form for the Sento Imperial Palace. This fact makes it one of the prototypes of later Noh stage architecture.
Atsuo Suda says, "The form of the Sarugaku stage in this early period is essentially different from the forms of the Izumiden, Haiden, and Maiden. In the history of the performing arts in Japan, the only thing that preceded the Sarugaku stage was the Bugaku stage. However, it is impossible to compare the two in the early Kamakura period and find a relationship between them. (Omitted) Therefore, I think it is fair to say that the Sarugaku stage mentioned above (the Sendo stage: Yamada's note) emerged independently as the original stage for Sarugaku."
Originally, Sarugaku and Dengaku were generally performed within the grounds of shrines and temples, or in the gardens of mansions. The main palace was designated for the nobility, and lower-ranking people watched from the grounds. However, if the purpose was simply to "perform," wouldn't it have been more rational for Noh to use the Bugaku stage that preceded it? Or would it have been rational in itself for the Noh stage to have developed based on the Bugaku stage?
What set such rationality aside and separated the two must have been that Bugaku was court music. And there must have been something about Sarugaku Noh that was completely incompatible with Bugaku, not just in its origins but also in the worldview it sought. We must consider what that was.
I am focusing on the four bamboo pillars on the stage at the Sento Imperial Palace.
I believe that these bamboos had a more important meaning than simply being a convenient building material.
The series of "ancient Noh" plays handed down in the Obasama Hakusan Shrine Festival in Kanenari Town, Miyagi Prefecture, are performed on a grass stage built on an earthen platform at the foot of the stone steps leading to the main shrine building of Hakusan Shrine. This altar has waist-high bamboo pillars at each corner and is wrapped in shime (注連：traditional Japanese Holy string of shrine).
The custom of surrounding the sacred realm of the gods with a bamboo fence has existed since ancient times. It was believed that bamboo had the magical power to ward off impurity and disaster.
At this stage of faith, bamboo was a symbol of purity and innocence. However, as the notion of purity and impurity from esoteric Buddhism was introduced and the bamboo fence was incorporated into the idea of a "barrier," it came to not only distinguish between the pure realm and the impure realm, but also to prevent impurity from entering and to indicate the presence of impurity. Impurity was defined as contagious (Engi Rinji Saisiki：延喜臨時祭式), and so it was necessary to show this and avoid it.
In funeral rites, there is a custom of surrounding the coffin with a green bamboo fence and tying bamboo fences around the funeral hall. According to Okiura Kazumitsu, "This is also a kind of barrier, indicating a taboo boundary. This bamboo fence simultaneously represents both a sacred place where the spirits of the dead reside before departing for the Pure Land, and a place where the impurity of the corpses arises."
By the way, there is an ancient document known as the "Kawara Scroll (河原巻物)“ that has been handed down to old families of discriminated communities in the early modern period. The contents seem to vary depending on the region, but their intention is to proudly proclaim one's occupation and family origins. Among these, the description of bamboo catches my attention. It is something that cannot be overlooked, especially in relation to faith in Mt. Hakusan and in relation to Sarugaku Noh.
I would like to quote a section related to Mt. Hakusan from the copy of "Chori Konso Narabini Hisatsu (長吏根素并秘察)“ introduced by Honda Yutaka.
"1. The bamboo of Mt. Hakusan Daigongen is the bamboo of the field for the funeral of the deceased, the bamboo of the Tenjiku Hatazao climbing cage, the bamboo of the curtains, the bamboo of the armor for the dead, the bamboo of the cage of the Jyurokumine ascetic, the bamboo of the pilgrims' cage, the bamboo of the various walkers' use, the bamboo of the Kongo walking sticks for pilgrimages to the mountains and rivers, the bamboo of the various walkers' use, the bamboo of the ascetics' walkers, the bamboo of the monks' walkers, the bamboo of the bamboo for personal use, the bamboo of Sarugaku, the bamboo of the monkey pullers, the bamboo of the eight-tassel gongs of the Komuso monks, the bamboo of the various walkers' use, the bamboo of the flutes for the flutes, the bamboo of the tea whisks, the bamboo of the bamboo [character unknown], the bamboo of the bamboo of the bamboo craftsmen ... (the rest is omitted)”
There are some unclear passages that appear to have been copied incorrectly, but if we supplement similar passages with the Origin of the Mikuni Chori (三国長吏由来) and interpret it as follows, we can get the following general idea:
In other words, the bamboo for the Nobe (Funeral Procession in the field)) curtain used to give the deceased their final farewell and cover the body, the bamboo in front of the gate, the bamboo for the four banner canopies, the bamboo for Ennen Kagura (延年神楽), the bamboo for Sarugaku, the bamboo used by the monkey trainers, the bamboo for Ennogyoja's backpack (役行者笈板の竹), the bamboo for the gongs, Yatsufusa (八房：pompöse of use etc. unknown), and Chasen (茶筅：A tool used to stir Match in a teacup), the kongo staff (金剛杖) of mountain ascetics, the bamboo for craftsmanship, and the bamboo for travellers are all bamboo belonging to Hakusan Gongen, and are supervised and managed by the Hakusan Chori (the head of the so-called discriminated communities).
What do the ``bamboos for Ennen Kagura'' and ``bamboos for Sarugaku'' refer to? Although all is unknown, the bamboo used at Hakusan in Toyone village and the bamboo on the grass stage at Obasama Hakusan Shrine can probably be said to be Hakusan Gongen bamboo. I also think that the four bamboo pillars on the Sarugaku stage at Sento Imperial Palace were also Hakusan Gongen bamboo.
However, the bamboo used for Sarugaku under the direction of Hakusan Chori seemed to have completely disappeared in the subsequent history of the development of Noh stages. It was not until the Azuchi-Momoyama period that bamboo reappeared, in the form of bamboo paintings painted on the side panels of the kiridoguchi (切戸口：traditional Japanese door entrance in the Nho stage).
The following entry about the pillars of Noh stages from the early Muromachi period appears in the Mansai Jugō Diary (満済准后日記) for April 23, 1430: They were installed in preparation for Shogun Yoshinori to watch Noh.
"Tonight in the east garden of the Seiryoden Hall of the Imperial Palace, Enami Sarugaku was summoned, Sarugaku was forbidden, and the stage, dressing room and below were all handled by the Emperor himself."
It also states that this was the first Sarugaku performance in the Imperial Palace. What is remarkable is that the Emperor himself took special care in constructing the stage and dressing room and below. This must have been a truly welcome development for the development of Sarugaku.
However, under these circumstances, Ennen Sarugaku no Take (延年猿楽の竹), which was under the command of the Hakusan Chori, who was discriminated against as an outcast, must have had no choice but to disappear, at least in the capital. If we consider that Noh performers, who were looked down upon as impure, such as Kan'ami and Zeami (father and son), had no choice but to become followers of the Ji sect (時宗) and eventually be added to the Doboshu sect (同朋衆) in order to gain access to the nobility, the venerable bamboo of Hakusan Gongen also had to remain hidden as bamboo used in Shinto and Buddhist ceremonies at local shrines and temples, until its significance was completely forgotten.
Towards the end of his life, Zeami sang about his place of exile superimposing it onto the place of Hakusan Gongen, but during the time when he enjoyed the shogun's favor, he was not aware of the liberation of his social status.
Hayashiya Tatsusaburo says, "It seems that starting his life as a Favourite of the shogun Yoshimitsu did not give him such awareness."
Noh became increasingly refined and followed the path to ceremonial music. Along the way, a few years after Zeami's death, Kanze and Konparu allied with the power of the shogunate and even went so far as to oppress other popular forms of sarugaku. How shameful of them to try to destroy the place where they were born, driven by their own arrogant desires. This was far from liberation.
Regarding the bamboo paintings on the side panels of Noh stages, Yamazaki Gakudo says the following: "The bamboo paintings on the side panels do not have any particularly ancient history or deep causes, and are merely a design that was created in later times to correspond to pine trees in order to fill the gaps in the paneling."
It is truly unfortunate, but I have not found any 'direct' evidence that would allow me to assert with certainty that the bamboo paintings on the side panels are a transformed version of the bamboo at Hakusan Gongen. However, like Yamazaki, we cannot simply overlook the existence of the bamboo paintings.
How does Yamazaki explain the unusual scene in the Noh play "Lady Aoi," in which the shrine maiden leaves through a doorway painted with bamboo paintings?
For better or worse, we have long since lost the consensus of cultural creation supported by faith in modern times, and I cannot help but feel the fear that we may have overlooked or misread something.
It is no exaggeration to say that Noh is full of vengeful spirits. How do these vengeful spirits pray to attain enlightenment and be reborn in a pure state? In that sense, Noh is a play to appease vengeful spirits. And the "nested" structure is the most ingeniously constructed perspective that connects this world and the other world for the purpose of appeasing vengeful spirits and for the purpose of rebirth in a pure state. In linear perspective, vengeful spirits do not appear near humans on a daily basis. The other world must be completely contained within this world.
I believe that the dramaturgy of Noh is clearly the same as that of Hakusan faith. I would also say that I believe it is related to the structure of the Yamato dynasty's rule over other ethnic groups.
References (excluding historical materials)
[1] Nose Tomotsugu, "A Study of the Origins of Nohgaku," Iwanami Shoten
[2] Hayashiya Tatsusaburo, "A Study of the History of the Arts in the Middle Ages," Iwanami Shoten
[3] Goto Yoshi and Hagiwara Hidesaburo, "Ancient Noh," Kawade Shobo Shinsha
[4] Okada Seiji, "Ritual and Mythology of Ancient Royal Power," Hanawa Shobo
[5] Wakita Osamu, "The World of Kawara Scrolls," University of Tokyo Press
[6] Honda Yutaka, "Hakusan Shrine and the Burakumin," Akashi Shoten
[7] Okiura Kazumitsu, "Folklore of Bamboo," Iwanami Shoten
[8] Shimode Sekiyo (ed.), "Hakusan Faith," Yuzankaku
[9] Miyata Noboru, "Folklore of the Gods," Iwanami Shoten
[10] Hayakawa Kotaro, "Flower Festival," Kokusho Kankokai
[11] Suda Atsuo, "Research on the History of Japanese Theater," Sagami Shobo
[12] Yamazaki Gakudo, "Noh Stage," Nogami ed., "Complete Book of Noh," Vol. 4, Tokyo Sogensha
[13] Yamagishi Tsunehito, "Medieval Temple Society and Buddhist Halls," Hanawa Shobo
[14] Architectural Institute of Japan ed., "Illustrated History of Japanese Architecture," Shokokusha
[15] Mozuna Monta, "Strange Buildings and Strange Feelings 9," Architecture, Vol. 175, Chugai Shuppan
[16] Konparu Kunio, "Invitation to Noh," Tankosha
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