What is Dyslexia?

The terms “dyslexia” and “specific reading disability” are often used interchangeably. The following definition, adopted by the International Dyslexia Association in 2002, is the definition recognized in Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS). Key words in the definition are underlined and further described in the text that follows. In addition, the Appendix contains a glossary of terms .

Definition

"Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties in word reading and/or spelling that involve accuracy, speed, or both and vary depending on the orthography. These difficulties occur along a continuum of severity and persist even with instruction that is effective for the individual’s peers. The causes of dyslexia are complex and involve combinations of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental influences that interact throughout development. Underlying difficulties with phonological and morphological processing are common but not universal, and early oral language weaknesses often foreshadow literacy challenges. Secondary consequences include reading comprehension problems and reduced reading and writing experience that can impede growth in language, knowledge, written expression, and overall academic achievement. Psychological well-being and employment opportunities also may be affected. Although identification and targeted instruction are important at any age, language and literacy support before and during the early years of education is particularly effective." (International Dyslexia Association, 2025).

Dyslexia is…

Specific learning disability: Dyslexia stems from a problem in a narrow area of development, rather than a global problem in overall development.

Neurobiological:Dyslexia is a brain-based disorder. Specific genes account for almost 80% of the differences found in the brains of students who demonstrate characteristics of dyslexia (Powers, et al., 2013).  Brain imaging for students with dyslexia reveal that the centers for specific aspects of reading and specific pathways between these centers are unlike those of typically developing readers.

Students with dyslexia develop a less efficient pathway in the brain for word recognition, which causes the student to process written text differently. Due to these neurobiological differences, decoding is inefficient, fluency is compromised, and meaning can be lost (Shaywitz, 2003).

Characterized by:Students with dyslexia typically struggle to sound out new words when reading (decoding), and they typically struggle to represent sounds in words accurately when spelling (encoding). Some students with dyslexia may be accurate readers, particularly if they have had an intervention, but they still struggle with reading fluency, reading quickly and accurately. For people with severe dyslexia, even if oral language comprehension skills are intact, reading comprehension may be compromised.

See the section entitled, Characteristics and Signs of Dyslexia  for more information.

Phonological component of language:Dyslexia is not characterized as a visual problem, but as a language problem. It can be seen in the way words are pronounced, read, and/or spelled. Although a phonological deficit is typically present, weaknesses may also exist in other cognitive and linguistic abilities, such as rapid automatized naming.

Unexpected:Dyslexia is unexpected relative to the student’s cognitive strengths and the type of instruction that has been provided. Sally Shaywitz (2003) refers to these skills as a “sea of strengths” that surrounds the reading and spelling deficit. Strengths such as problem solving, critical thinking, vocabulary and background knowledge can help students develop compensatory strategies which can then mask their difficulty with decoding.

Secondary consequences:While dyslexia is a targeted difficulty in the phonological component of language, it can impact the overall development of literacy skills. Because of difficulties with word reading and spelling, students can also struggle with reading comprehension and writing composition. Students can also experience social and emotional impacts, such as lack of motivation in reading and writing, anxiety, depression and/or a pattern of avoiding reading or writing tasks.

Continuum of Dyslexia

Dyslexia exists on a continuum of severity and can occur in students at all levels of intelligence. For these reasons, it is not always immediately evident when an individual is actually presenting with characteristics of dyslexia.  Due to strong cognitive abilities, some students are able to develop strategies to accurately identify words using other abilities to compensate for their poor word reading or slow reading rate.  Some students may demonstrate less severe characteristics of dyslexia, causing them less difficulty when initially learning decoding skills. These students do not always require targeted reading remediation. However, those students with more severe forms of dyslexia do require targeted interventions focusing on phonemic awareness, word identification, and/or fluency.

Dyslexia affects some people more than others, meaning that the impact of dyslexia can differ from one student to the next. Because it manifests differently on the mild end of the continuum than it does on the severe end of the continuum, signs and symptoms can vary. There are a variety of factors that can affect the severity of dyslexia. This continuum from mild to severe helps to explain why dyslexia is not always easy to identify, why students with dyslexia need different levels of intensity of intervention, and why they may respond differently to these interventions.

Although phonological processing deficits are the most characteristic difficulty related to dyslexia, not all students with dyslexia have a phonological deficit. Students with dyslexia may have weaknesses in rapid automatized naming, or the ability to name objects and symbols quickly and accurately; orthographic mapping, establishing the connections between the speech sounds and the written letters; processing speed, visually scanning symbols quickly; and/or working memory, apprehending and then reorganizing information mentally. Students with weaknesses in more than one of these areas tend to have more severe dyslexia.

Mild Dyslexia

Neurologically, dyslexia is characterized as inefficient and/or inaccurate processing of the sounds in words when speaking, reading or writing. Positive environmental factors, such as access to a rich oral language early literacy environment and strong early literacy instruction or intervention, can lessen the impact of dyslexia on learning to read. These early experiences can create more efficient pathways in the brain needed for automatic processing of the sounds in the written word (Aylward et al., 2003).

Dyslexia may be mild if the source of dyslexia is a lack of automaticity in retrieving information from long term memory. Dyslexia may also be mild if the related factors, such as phonological and/or rapid automatized naming deficits, are mild.

Finally, dyslexia may appear to be mild because of the cognitive strengths a given individual with dyslexia may have. Strengths in vocabulary, reasoning, problem solving, or oral language comprehension (described by Shaywitz as a “sea of strengths”) can mediate the severity of dyslexia.

Students with strong oral language skills can often develop average reading skills which can then make their dyslexia more difficult to identify. They can also better compensate for their weaknesses, thus keeping the dyslexia “hidden.”

Moderate Dyslexia

Shaywitz’s “sea of strengths” model can help to explain why mild dyslexia may be overlooked by families and educators (Shaywitz, 2003). However, it is important to note that not all students with dyslexia will have these strengths, nor will all students with dyslexia present with above average cognitive skills. Dyslexia occurs evenly across the population, and is not unique to people with average or above intelligence. Average or above intelligence, however, can help facilitate the process of learning to read, as well as the student’s rate of response to intervention. 

Dyslexia is often experienced with moderate impact on reading achievement when phonological challenges are paired with rapid naming deficits, referred to as the “double deficit” hypothesis (Wolf & Bowers, 1999). Students with a “double-deficit” often have more difficulty learning to read. Once reading accuracy is established, often through a structured multisensory phonics approach, interventions must be used to increase reading fluency and rate.

Co-existing conditions, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or dysgraphia, can also increase dyslexia’s impact on behavior or academic performance, and can lessen the positive impact of early intervention... Co-existing conditions may lead to a more moderate (vs. mild) expression of dyslexia. The section entitled, Common Co-existing Conditions with Dyslexia  explains more about the most common disorders that accompany dyslexia.

Severe Dyslexia

Many students with dyslexia have phonological processing deficits. Students who have additional challenges or other cognitive and linguistic weaknesses (e.g., orthographic mapping, processing speed, rapid automatized naming, working memory, and/or executive functioning) will often experience a more severe form of dyslexia.

Dyslexia impacts accurate and fluent word recognition. While mild or moderate dyslexia often impacts automatic word recognition, severe dyslexia impacts automatic word recognition to such a degree that comprehension of text is often compromised as well. In much the same way, while mild or moderate dyslexia often impacts spelling, severe dyslexia impacts spelling to such a degree that, even with accommodations, students may have difficulty expressing their thoughts in writing. 

Finally, students who demonstrate more severe dyslexia often have family histories of language, reading, and writing difficulties. Genes account for at least 80% of individuals with this reading disorder (Powers et al., 2013).

References

• Aylward E.H., Richards T.L., Berninger V.W., Nagy W.E., Field K.M., Grimme A.C., Richards A.L., Thomson J.B., & Cramer S.C. (2003). Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Neurology, 61, 212–219.
• Powers N, Eicher J, Butter F, Kong, Y., Miller, L., Ring, S., Mann, M., & Gruen, J. (2013). Alleles of a Polymorphic ETV6 Binding Site in DCDC2 Confer Risk of Reading and Language Impairment. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 93 , 19–28; July 11, 2013.
• Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York, NY: Knopf.
• Wolf, M. & Bowers, P. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415-438.

Characteristics of Dyslexia

Dyslexia is comprised of three central components: struggles with word reading, spelling and/or reading fluency.  The profile of a student with dyslexia contains one or more of these weaknesses, but the severity will vary across students.  Since dyslexia occurs on a continuum of severity, the expression of dyslexia will appear different across students. Learn more in the section entitled, “ Definition and Continuum of Dyslexia .”

Thus, dyslexia does not have a uniform profile; it can look different for different people. The clinical signs and symptoms can also overlap or coincide with other disorders, called co-existing or comorbid conditions, which may add to the complexity. Learn more in the section entitled, “ Common Co-existing Conditions with Dyslexia .”

There are, however, some common characteristics that set dyslexia apart from other types of reading and writing difficulties, disabilities, and disorders. Dyslexia is a language-based reading disorder. The primary characteristics of dyslexia are as follows:

• Poor decoding: Difficulty accurately reading (or sounding out) unknown words;
• Poor fluency: Slow, inaccurate, or labored oral reading (slow reading rate);
• Poor spelling: Difficulty with learning to spell, or with spelling words, even common words, accurately.
• Poor reading comprehension: In moderate to severe cases, poor decoding and limited fluency can interfere with reading comprehension, even if oral language comprehension skills are adequate. 

The main sources for these characteristic difficulties, which can be identified in psychological evaluations, are as follows:

• Weak phonological awareness, including segmenting (or breaking apart), blending (or putting together), and manipulating (or changing) the spoken syllables and sounds in words;
• Weak phonics skills, starting with learning the names of letters and their associated sounds; Once the letters and their sounds have been learned, the reader must apply this knowledge to printed words. This process requires orthographic mapping, which refers to matching the speech sounds (the phonemes) to the appropriate letters or letter patterns (graphemes).
• Poor phonological memory or working memory (difficulty holding information about sounds and words in memory in order to use this information to read or spell);
• Difficulty with rapid naming of familiar objects, colors, numbers, or letters of the alphabet.

Learn more in the section entitled, “ Continuum of Assessments for Dyslexia .”

Signs of Dyslexia

People with dyslexia exhibit particular strengths and difficulties at different stages in their education. Some of the characteristics are more likely to be present in young children, whereas others are more apparent in adolescents.

Dyslexia has sometimes been referred to as a “hidden disability” because students with dyslexia may exhibit strengths in cognitive abilities that can then mask their difficulties. Thus, examining typical strengths alongside typical difficulties can be enlightening in understanding the signs of dyslexia.

The distinctive strengths and difficulties of people with dyslexia at different ages and stages are presented in the resource entitled, “ Signs of Dyslexia .”

Myths or Common Misconceptions about Dyslexia

Dyslexia has a long history of being a misunderstood reading difficulty. In fact, in 1887 a German ophthalmologist, Rudolf Berlin, first coined the term “dyslexia” to replace its previous label of “word blindness.”

There are many myths, misconceptions, and incorrect definitions of dyslexia still circulating today. Families and educators should be aware of these myths so they can align their thinking with the facts available. Here is a collection of the most common myths and misconceptions regarding students with dyslexia.

• People who have dyslexia will never be able to read.
• If you are “smart,” you cannot have dyslexia.
• Dyslexia is more common in boys.
• People can outgrow dyslexia.
• Dyslexia is an oral language disorder.
• Students with dyslexia see or write words and letters backwards more than students without dyslexia.
• All readers who struggle have dyslexia.
• Dyslexia is a rare learning disability
• Poor instruction causes dyslexia.
• Dyslexia is caused by a lack of effort toward learning how to read.
• There is only one evidence-based program for dyslexia intervention.

Legislation to provide guidance about identifying and supporting students with dyslexia has been passed by both the U.S. Congress and the majority of state legislatures across the United States of America, including the Virginia General Assembly. Below is a summary of the legislative activity that provides a context for the guidance FCPS has developed in this handbook.

FEDERAL LEGISLATION
May 2012-present: Bipartisan Congressional Dyslexia Caucus
Formed by bipartisan co-chairs Bill Cassidy (R-La.) and Pete Stark (D-Calif.) “to educate other Members of Congress and advance policies to break down barriers faced by dyslexics.” In 2013, Stark was replaced by Julia Brownley (D-Calif.) and in 2015, Bill Cassidy was replaced by Lamar Smith (R-Texas).
See “ Dyslexia Resources ” for a link to the Bipartisan Congressional Dyslexia Caucus.

October 2015-present: October is Dyslexia Awareness Month
U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan issued a statement on Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Awareness Month. This statement is excerpted below:
October 2015: U.S. Department of Education, Dear Colleague Letter on Dyslexia Guidance

• The U.S. Department of Education issued a “Dear Colleague” letter on October 23, 2015 clarifying the responsibilities of educators in providing services to students with dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
• The purpose of the letter is to clarify that “there is nothing in the IDEA that would prohibit the use of the terms dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia in the IDEA evaluation, eligibility determinations, or IEP documents.”

February 2016: President signs HR 3033 Research Excellence and Advancements for Dyslexia (READ)Act.

• Requires the President’s annual budget request to Congress each year include a line item for the Research in Disabilities Education program of the National Science Foundation and to require the National Science Foundation to conduct research on dyslexia.
• Specifies that the National Science Foundation shall devote no less than $5,000,000 to research into specific learning disabilities, which shall include no less than $2,500,000 for research on the science of dyslexia, for each of fiscal years 2017 through 2021, subject to the availability of appropriations.

VIRGINIA STATE LEGISLATION March 2002: VDOE revises The Regulations Governing Special Education Programs for Children with Disabilities in Virginia, at 8VAC20-81-10 (effective March 27, 2002), to include the definition of dyslexia as follows:

• Dyslexia is distinguished from other learning disabilities due to its weakness occurring at the phonological level. Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

March 2010: The Virginia General Assembly passes SJR No. 87 requiring the Virginia Department of Education to study dyslexia screening for kindergarteners.

• The study found that “no reliable and valid screening instrument for dyslexia has been identified.  The International Dyslexia Association’s (IDA) fact sheet supports and encourages schools to begin screening children in kindergarten to identify any child, who exhibits the early signs of reading difficulties, but they also acknowledge that individualized, in‐depth, formal testing of reading, language, and writing skills is the only way to confirm a diagnosis of suspected dyslexia.”

April 2016: The Virginia General Assembly passes HB 842, amending Va. Code § 22. 1-298. 1.D.8 to require dyslexia awareness for teacher licensure, and adding Va. Code § 22. 1-294, to require that university-level teacher training programs include information on the identification of dyslexia, both effective July 1, 2017.

• Requires Board of Education regulations governing teacher licensure to require every person seeking initial licensure or renewal of a license to complete awareness training, provided by the Department of Education, on the indicators of dyslexia and the evidence-based interventions and accommodations for dyslexia.
• Requires VDOE to collaborate with the State Council of Higher Education for Virginia to ensure that all teacher preparation programs offered at public institutions of higher education in the Commonwealth or otherwise available convey information on the identification of students at risk for learning disabilities, including dyslexia, other language-based learning disabilities, and attention deficit disorder.

January 2016: The Virginia General Assembly passes SB 1516, amending Va. Code § 22. 1-253. 13:2.G., to require any school board who employs a reading specialist to employ at least one reading specialist with expertise in dyslexia, effective July 1, 2017. 

• Requires one reading specialist employed by each local school board that employs a reading specialist to have training in the identification of and the appropriate interventions, accommodations, and teaching techniques for students with dyslexia or a related disorder and to have an understanding of the definition of dyslexia and a working knowledge of several topics relating to dyslexia.

April 2022: The Virginia General Assembly passes SB616 - The Virginia Literacy Act, amending Va. Code § 22. 1-253. 13:2.G., to require beginning the 2024-2025 school year:

Teacher Preparation Programs:

• Each education preparation program offered by a public or private institution of higher education or alternative certification program that provides training for any individual seeking initial licensure with an endorsement in a certain area, including as a reading specialist, to demonstrate mastery of science-based reading research and evidence-based literacy instruction, as such terms are defined in the bill;
• The literacy assessment required of individuals seeking initial teacher licensure with endorsements in certain areas to include a rigorous test of science-based reading research and evidence-based literacy instruction.

Local School Boards:

• To establish a division wide literacy plan;
• To employ one reading specialist for each 550 students in kindergarten through grade three; and
• To provide a program of literacy instruction whereby:
  • The program provides reading intervention services to students in kindergarten through grade three who demonstrate deficiencies based on their individual performance on the Standards of Learning reading assessment or an early literacy screener provided or approved by the Department of Education;
  • A reading specialist, in collaboration with the teacher of any student who receives such reading intervention services, develops, oversees implementation of, and monitors student progress on a student reading plan; and
  • Each student who receives such reading intervention services is assessed utilizing either the early literacy screener provided or approved by the Department or the grade-level reading Standards of Learning assessment again at the end of that school year. 

See the section entitled, “ Dyslexia Resources ” for a link to Virginia’s Legislative Information System.

Responsive Instruction: A Multi-Tiered System of Support

Responsive Instruction (RI) is a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) applied to academics, behavior, and student wellness at the district and school levels. The implementation of an MTSS ensures the delivery of high quality core instruction with consistent review of data to ensure early identification of and intervention for struggling students. School teams routinely problem solve using current data to identify student’s strengths and instructional needs. The information helps teams design an intervention providing the right combination of instructional components and intensity of implementation.

What are the Tiers of Support?

At all tiers, teachers engage in ongoing monitoring of student progress to measure how students are responding to core instruction and interventions. The parent/guardian is a partner in this process and is informed about the student’s progress and needs.

Tier 1
All students receive:

• Evidence-based, high quality core instruction
• Differentiated instruction and additional support provided as needed

Tier 2
Based on data, some students receive:

• Small group, targeted intervention in addition to high quality core instruction.

Tier 3
Based on data, few students receive:

• Intensive intervention in areas of need in addition to high quality core instruction.

RI does NOT replace the special education process of identifying a disability. If at any time a parent/guardian or a teacher believes a student has a disability, they have the right to make a referral to the Local Screening Committee. RI can be a source of targeted intervention for a student with dyslexia.

Planning Interventions to Support Dyslexia

An intervention is evidence-based, systematic, and explicit instruction that targets a specific area of need. It is provided in addition to core instruction and is intentionally designed to increase performance in relation to a specific, measureable goal. Interventions must be based on valid and current performance data, delivered with fidelity, and require ongoing progress monitoring (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2009; DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010; RTI Action Network, 2017).For more information on fidelity, see the section entitled, “ Interventions and Specialized Reading Programs .”

Teams may develop a targeted plan with evidence-based strategies or elect to use an evidence-based program to meet students’ needs. The Responsive Instruction problem-solving process helps teams identify students’ areas of strength and need as early as possible and match students to the necessary interventions.

The Responsive Instruction problem-solving process can help school teams identify and address the needs of students with dyslexia. Dyslexia may impact multiple areas including reading, mathematics, behavior, and student wellness.

Reading

Students with dyslexia have difficulty with decoding and/or fluency despite cognitive strengths and access to strong reading instruction. Because dyslexia occurs on a continuum, not all students with dyslexia need special education services, but most will require explicit instruction in phonological skills. Some students may also require intervention through structured literacy programs. The FCPS Responsive Instruction framework provides school teams a process through which students can receive the appropriate level of instruction and intervention to meet their needs.

With early identification and explicit instruction in phonological awareness and phonics, teachers help create and strengthen the brain’s pathways for accurate and fluent reading. Research supports the efficacy of an explicit phonics approach using a structured literacy approach. For example, the Orton-Gillingham approach includes instructional practices which are direct, explicit, systematic, sequential, multisensory, and provide immediate corrective feedback, and include a cumulative review of content.

See the section entitled, “ Core Instruction for Students with Dyslexia ” for a description of each of these aspects of the structured literacy approach. Learn more about interventions that employ this methodology in the section entitled, “ Interventions and Specialized Reading Programs .”

Writing

Students with dyslexia typically struggle to spell words accurately or automatically, both when they are sequencing the sounds present in regularly spelled words (such as “fun,” “tiger” or “girl”) or when they are recalling the letter sequences of irregular or exception words (such as “were,” “would,” or “they.”)

Yet spelling is not the only difficulty students with dyslexia may have with writing. The process by which students express their thoughts or ideas in written language can also be impacted by dyslexia. In part, this may stem from students’ avoidance of words they cannot spell accurately, which can then result in a simplification of the messages they are attempting to express. However, students may also struggle to organize their thoughts, convey ideas in a logical order, or sustain effort long enough to produce a complete piece of written text.

For students with dyslexia, interventions employing an explicit phonics approach improves not only reading skills but spelling skills as well. Often, improved spelling will result in longer, more cohesive written pieces. Occasionally, interventions for writing composition may also need to be provided.

Mathematics

Students with dyslexia may struggle with the reading and writing involved in mathematics classes. However, students with dyslexia may also struggle to solve math problems.  Mathematics difficulties may stem from similar underlying factors to dyslexia, such as the rapid naming of numbers, or weaknesses in working memory that impact counting, multistep problems, and mental computations.

Unlike students with dyscalculia, students with dyslexia may successfully engage in conceptual problem solving. See the section entitled, “ Common Co-existing Conditions with Dyslexia ” for more information about dyscalculia.

As with reading, teams should identify areas of student strength and need in mathematics in order to match students to the necessary interventions as early as possible. Students with math difficulties often require explicit instruction in math calculation and/or problem solving.

Behavior and Wellness

Dyslexia can impact students’ social and emotional welfare. Students may respond to the frustrations of dyslexia in different ways. Some students demonstrate the impact of dyslexia outwardly by engaging in attention-getting, avoidance, and/or disruptive behaviors. Other students respond to dyslexia inwardly and may develop anxiety or depression. See the section entitled, “ Social Emotional Impacts of Dyslexia ” for more information.

The Responsive Instruction process can help teams problem solve for the needs of individual students, whether school teams are responding to the behaviors or the wellness needs of students with dyslexia. Teams can examine data, plan interventions and supports, and monitor progress to ensure that the social and emotional needs of students with dyslexia are well met.

Key Components for Successful Interventions

• Student needs are specifically identified, interventions are matched to the underlying skill deficits, and are delivered by a trained professional.
• Instruction is well planned, sequenced, and implemented with fidelity.
• Students improve by building necessary skills/strategies.
• Progress is monitored on the specific skill/strategy and discussed on a consistent basis.
• Communication occurs between the interventionist and all other stakeholders, including families.
• Students continue to receive high quality core instruction.

References

• Buffum, A., Mattos, M., & Weber, C. (2009).  Pyramid response to intervention: RTI, professional learning communities, and how to respond when students don't learn . Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
• DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Many, T. (2010) Learning by doing: A handbook for professional learning communities at work . Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.
• RTI Action Network (2017) http://www.rtinetwork.org/

Why are Accommodations Important?

For the student with dyslexia, it can feel as if the world of school is barred by the locked gate of text. Most subject matter knowledge is accessed by reading and communicated through writing. Accommodations can provide the key to unlock this gate so that the student can be successful in school.

Classroom accommodations are designed to allow students with dyslexia to have access to the same material during instruction and meet the same academic expectations as their peers. Testing accommodations are important to ensure that a student’s knowledge is being assessed, not their ability to communicate that knowledge in writing, or to read the test items themselves.

Reading fluency is impacted for the majority of students with dyslexia and often an important accommodation is extended time, or extra time, for classroom assignments and tests. It is important to have consensus on the meaning of extended time and how much extra time is necessary in order for the student to meet the course requirements.

Accommodations vs. Modifications

Accommodations are not the same as modifications. Classroom accommodations change how  a student learns the material, while modifications change  what material is to be learned. Testing accommodations change how a student expresses his or her understanding of material, while modifications change what material is tested. For example, dictating answers to an essay test would be an accommodation, but requiring only a portion of the content be assessed via essay would be a modification.

Because reading and writing tasks take longer and are more frustrating for students with dyslexia, modifications may be appropriate to consider as well. For example, some students with dyslexia may benefit from reduced reading and writing workload at school or for homework.

The importance of classroom and testing accommodations and modifications can increase as students’ workload increases; these supports are essential for student success in secondary school. Modifications and accommodations should be revisited often as students with dyslexia progress through school, their literacy needs shift, and the demands of their classes change.

Suggested Accommodations for Students With Dyslexia

While there are a variety of classroom and testing accommodations for students with learning disabilities, the following are recommended to consider in order to address the specific needs of a student identified with dyslexia. NOT ALL ACCOMMODATIONS are appropriate for all students—the individual needs of the student are considered when selecting which accommodations are appropriate.

 Student Role in Accommodations Planning

Regular discussion of these accommodations and their effectiveness for the student are important ways to ensure their continued appropriateness. In some cases, students may not consistently choose to access the accommodations he or she is provided. Teachers need to document a student’s refusal to access identified accommodations and communicate that refusal with the student’s family.  The team may need to reconvene to discuss the impact of this refusal if it happens routinely.

If the student plays an active role in meetings, he or she can share his or her thoughts and experiences with the supports provided, and suggest changes based on what is needed and helpful in each setting. Learn more about the rationale for this involvement in the section entitled, “ Self-Advocacy and Voice for Students with Dyslexia .”

Classroom Assessments that Point to Dyslexia

Teachers can evaluate students for the characteristics of dyslexia with a variety of formative assessments. Classroom assessments are used to determine present levels of decoding, fluency, and spelling skills, and can measure the underlying foundational skills of phonological awareness and phonics as well.

If classroom assessments indicate markers for dyslexia (i.e., unexpected difficulties in decoding, fluency and/or spelling), a student may be referred to the multi-departmental team responsible for planning interventions, sometimes called the Responsive Instruction Core Team. Through that process, additional data can be collected about the student’s response to interventions. The student’s progress will be monitored and will inform the need for more intensive support. See the section entitled, “ Responsive Instruction for Students with Dyslexia " for more information.

It is important to note that, sometimes, the student is reading at grade level even though there are some indicators of difficulty with fluency or spelling. Given the possibility of comprehension strengths that assist a student to compensate for word-level difficulties, a determination of “grade level reading” is made by using a variety of classroom assessments to determine decoding, fluency and spelling skills, such as a measure of oral reading fluency, and/or phonics surveys and spelling inventories.

Refererral to Local Screening Committee

Families and educators alike can refer a student to the Local Screening Committee (LSC) at their school if they have concerns about a student’s decoding, fluency and spelling and suspect the student has dyslexia or any learning disorder. A parent, guardian or an educator can fill out a Multipurpose Referral form (see the forms available at https://www.fcps.edu/registration/child-find ) to describe the concerns. The LSC convenes to discuss these concerns. Parents and guardians are important members of the team.

After reviewing all available data from multiple sources, the LSC may propose interventions, referral and consideration for a Section 504 qualification (see “ 504 Plans for Students with Dyslexia ”), or further assessment. For example, the LSC may propose that:

• There is sufficient evidence to warrant an evaluation for special education.
• There is NOT sufficient evidence to warrant an evaluation for special education.
• The student should be considered for a Section 504 initial qualification.  (This 504 evaluation may or may not require additional formal assessment.)

Based on the referral concerns and available data, the committee may recommend the specific assessments needed to determine eligibility. These may include a psychological evaluation, a sociocultural evaluation, an educational evaluation, or others based on specific referral questions. Parental consent to evaluate is required before any evaluations are conducted.

Areas to Consider for Evaluation

Functioning in the following areas will be examined and ruled out as significant factors contributing to a student’s reading challenges prior to assessing for dyslexia:

• Vision is checked so that it is clear that the student is able to see the written text.
• Hearing is checked to rule out a hearing impairment as a contributory factor to poor linguistic decoding and comprehension skills.
• Second language learning is evaluated with regard to overall level of expressive (i.e., speaking) and receptive (i.e., listening) language skill acquisition.
• Receptive and/or expressive language skills are considered to determine their impact on reading.

The evaluation process for assessing an individual with reading concerns includes phonological awareness, the ability to hear and manipulate sounds within words; word reading and phonics skills; and fluency... Various tests are available to the schools to assess these areas. Students with dyslexia often have:

• Difficulties with phonological and phonemic awareness.  Assessments target the student’s ability to distinguish sounds within words, segment sounds within words, and blend sounds to form words.
• Difficulties developing phonic and word reading skills. Assessments target real word reading, as well as nonsense word reading.
• Compromised fluency and reading rates. Assessments targeting the “see it say it” connection within the brain or rapid naming abilities are included as part of the evaluation, as well as measures of reading rate.

Once evaluations are completed, the results are shared with the student’s parents or guardians, and as appropriate, with the student, and an eligibility committee convenes to discuss these results. The committee will consider the student’s eligibility for special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). See the section entitled, “ Special Education Services for Dyslexia ” for more information about how this process relates to students with dyslexia.

What if the LSC Decides Not to Evaluate?

If the LSC decides not to evaluate, they may recommend an additional intervention as a next step in in supporting a student’s literacy development. This intervention may be delivered through the process of Responsive Instruction. Learn more in the section entitled, “ Responsive Instruction for Students with Dyslexia .”

The LSC may also determine that there is sufficient data available to determine Section 504 qualification. Learn more in the section entitled, “ 504 Plans for Students with Dyslexia .”

View additional information about Local Screening processes

What is Section 504?

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504), as amended, is designed to eliminate discrimination based on disability in any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. This act requires that no qualified student who demonstrates a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities shall be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefit of, or be subjected to discrimination in any program or activity offered by FCPS. These major life activities include: self-care, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking breathing, working, learning, eating, sleeping, standing, lifting, bending, reading, concentrating, thinking, operation of a major bodily function, and communicating.

See Section 504 Information for additional information about Section 504.

How May Section 504 Apply to Dyslexia?

Students with dyslexia have an impairment which may substantially limit the major life activities of reading, learning, or other areas that indicate they can be considered for Section 504 qualification.  Reading or learning limitations may prevent students from fully accessing their instructional program. For example, if a student is being taught Virginia History using a textbook he or she cannot read fluently, that student is not receiving access to the curriculum. In a case such as this, the student may qualify to receive accommodations through a 504 Plan to access a recorded version of the history textbook.

This is one of many examples of how dyslexia may pose a limitation to student access to the curriculum. Each student’s unique needs should be considered when developing a 504 plan.

504 Process

The 504 process begins with a referral to the LSC. See “ Special Education Procedures ” for more information.
Data are collected and parents or guardians are invited and encouraged to attend as important members of the LSC. After reviewing all available data from multiple sources, the LSC may propose interventions, further assessment, and/or a Section 504 initial qualification determination.

A complete description of the 504 process can be found in “ Section 504 Information .” 

What may be Included in 504 Plans for Students with Dyslexia?

Each 504 plan is unique and designed to meet the needs of the student. The 504 plan provides accommodations and services to provide the student with equal access to the educational benefits of the school’s programs and activities.

504 accommodations help provide students with dyslexia equitable access to instruction. Accommodations are selected based upon data to support the academic areas and classroom functions that are impacted by dyslexia.

See more information in “ Accommodations for Students with Dyslexia .”

A 504 plan may indicate the need for a related service such as Assistive Technology. Any determination of the need for a related service is made following the administration of appropriate assessment(s). See “ Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia ” for more information.

What is Assistive Technology?

IDEA 2004 defines Assistive Technology (AT) as any item, equipment or system used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of people with disabilities. These supports can be low-tech (such as a pencil grip) or high-tech (such as a wheelchair), and can be used for remediation (pencil grips remediate handwriting) or compensation (wheelchairs provide compensation for the function of walking). Reading and writing are both functions for which many students with dyslexia may require AT support.

AT includes tools to help students access their instruction in every content area. Students use these tools to demonstrate a higher level of reading and writing skills. AT bridges the gap between current performance and grade level materials, but only intervention can close this gap. Interventions help students build on their current reading and writing skills, while assistive technology helps them gain access to higher level reading material and express their ideas through writing.

What Assistive Technology is Not

Assistive Technology is not intervention. Students accessing AT tools are not, in fact, improving their reading and writing skills by using these tools. If a student has a demonstrated deficit in reading or writing, he or she needs intervention to strengthen these weak skills. See the section entitled, “ Interventions and Specialized Reading Programs ” for more information.

Remediation VS. Compensation

The art of assistive technology is in finding the right amount of support to help a student based on his or her needs. We know that dyslexia occurs on a continuum, so we know that the supports students with dyslexia need will occur on a continuum as well.

Too much support and too little support are equally demotivating and frustrating. Using math as an example, if a student already knows his or her multiplication facts, using a calculator would actually slow him or her down and be frustrating. For another student with working memory difficulties, a calculator may be the appropriate AT support.

“Remediation” for reading and writing will require that students still engage with written text, but that they get support with this engagement. In other words, when using their AT, they are reading and writing text with help.

“Compensation” for reading and writing will require that students still interpret or construct texts, but they do this by engaging in oral language. In other words, when using their assistive technology, they are comprehending print by listening to it, and they are writing print by speaking it. They are not decoding or spelling the text themselves.

A unique combination of remediation and compensation strategies for decoding, comprehension, spelling and composition is developed to reflect the needs of the individual student, and will vary depending on the severity of a student’s dyslexia. For information about the needs of students with mild, moderate or severe dyslexia, see the section entitled, “ Definition and Continuum of Dyslexia .”

Types of Assistive Technology

There are many assistive technologies available that can support access to the curriculum and increase capabilities for students with reading difficulties. Many of these technologies are readily available in the classroom and can also be used at home to support a student who struggles with reading, writing, and organization.

See the chart below for examples of remediation and compensation tools and resources available for the four key functions which students with dyslexia may find difficult: decoding and comprehension in reading, and spelling and composition in writing. Not all students with dyslexia will benefit from all types of AT. Careful consideration must be taken to determine the appropriate level of support.

Remediation:These strategies support the students’ use of written language to make it more accurate or automatic.

Compensation:These strategies rely on students’ strengths in oral language to demonstrate their command of written text.

For more information on all of these tools, visit " Assistive Technology Support for Students with Reading Difficulties ". 

Accessible Instructional Materials (AIM)

Accessible Instructional Materials (AIM) are printed textbooks, trade books, and other educational materials that are converted to alternate formats (Braille, Large Print, Electronic/Digital Text, and Audio Recordings). Students with a documented visual, physical or print disability and an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) may require accessible instructional materials (AIM) if the limitations of print materials are the barrier to their success. IEP teams are required to consider whether a student requires materials in an alternate format.

How Does a Student Get Access to Assistive Technology?

Students with dyslexia benefit from tools that support their reading and writing. The context in which they obtain access to these tools will dictate which tools are available. These contexts include general education, 504 plans, IEPs and AIM-eligibility.

Every FCPS school has an Assistive Technology Resource Teacher who helps to incorporate assistive technology for students with disabilities. The AT Resource Teacher can provide professional development to teachers on using AT to benefit students in the general education environment as well.

If a student has an IEP or 504, an AT consult can be requested during his or her IEP or 504 meeting. After meeting with the student, the AT consult starts with an assessment of what classroom functions pose difficulty. As a result of this assessment, the AT Resource Teacher writes a report listing recommended technological supports to make those functions less difficult.

The IEP or 504 team reconvenes and makes decisions about which supports from the report will be implemented. The chosen supports are documented on the accommodations page. Training is provided to the student and teacher in the supports chosen by the IEP team. Given that a student’s needs and available technologies both change frequently, AT is an ongoing assessment process.

AIM-VA Eligibility

A student might qualify for materials from Accessible Instructional Materials of Virginia (AIM-VA) if they have a documented physical, visual, or print disability. A student with a reading disability, called a print disability, whose IEP team is considering his or her need for materials from the AIM-VA, must have certification that his or her reading disability is a result of an organic dysfunction. Students with a visual or physical disability should already have this documentation on file. The IEP team must also find that the student requires access to materials in an alternate format. Students with a 504 plan do not qualify for AIM-VA. AIM-VA eligibility is required to access the audio book database, Learning Ally. See “ Accessible Instructional Materials ” for more information.

ATfor All Students

What AT is available to all students? Technology is more mainstream, meaning all technology tools are becoming readily available to any student with access to a device. FCPS has embarked on a bold 1:1 technology initiative, called FCPSOn. 1:1 technology means there is one device for each student to use for learning. This initiative has the potential of making AT more convenient and its use less conspicuous for teachers and students. See “ FCPSOn ” for more information.

What designates technology as assistive is that the student requires it in order to access the curriculum. For example, all students have access to FCPS eBooks, but it plays the role of AT for students with decoding or comprehension difficulties. These eBook libraries can be accessed using students’ FCPS login information . 

If a student has access to a personal device, there are many speak features built in to iOS 8. Google Apps for Education can serve as AT for students who need it. The Google Chrome Read & Write extension can be of particular support to students with dyslexia, because it allows students to hear documents read aloud, enhanced with color highlighting and definitions of key vocabulary. It can also provide students with suggestions for words as they type, turn spoken words into text, and simplify or summarize test on web pages.

Microsoft Word also has a variety of supports all students can access. Microsoft Word has a Speak function that can support a student’s reading and writing by reading selected text aloud to a student. This Speak function can easily be added to the top of the page: click the small drop down arrow, choose “Customize Quick Access Toolbar,” show all programs, and add “Speak.”
Finally, for students who need help with composition, Microsoft Word offers an outline view (available in the View menu) that can support a student’s drafting process. This allows students to focus on getting down key ideas without getting bogged down by sentence construction and spelling. View more information about AT supports for students with reading or writing difficulties . 

Student Voice in Assistive Technology

Because of the shifting nature of needs for AT, it is important for the student, especially at the secondary level, to be involved in the process of reflecting on his or her use of different tools and updating the plan for which ones will best support him or her. See “ Student Voice and Self-Advocacy for Dyslexia ” for more information.

The AT Ambassadors Program allows students to serve as models to other students of advocating for themselves and their use of AT.

A Word on Dyslexia Fonts

Dr. Guinevere Eden, a renowned dyslexia researcher, confirms that there is no evidence base that dyslexia fonts help people with dyslexia to read faster and more accurately (see https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/dyslexia/is-there-a-certain-font-that-works-best-for-kids-with-dyslexia ).

The core difficulty with dyslexia is not visual but phonological. However, any student, whether he or she has dyslexia or not, may find some fonts easier to read than others. Encourage students to try different fonts to determine if there are fonts that are easier for them to read than others.

From Instruction to Intervention

Effective literacy instruction is essential for all students but especially for students with dyslexia. Dyslexia occurs on a continuum; as such, instruction is matched to the profile of the reader based on specific needs, as determined by multiple data sources. The needs of some students with dyslexia can be met with intensified core instruction. See “ Core Instruction for Students with Dyslexia ” for more information.

In FCPS, high-quality core instruction (both elementary and secondary) is paramount and provides a foundation for learning. Access to continued core instruction is an important element of intervention planning.

Many students with dyslexia will require an intervention to build their phonological and word reading skills at some point during their education. An intervention is targeted instruction in an area of difficulty in order to close a gap between current performance and grade level performance. A student does not need to have an Individualized Education Program (IEP) to access an intervention.

Dyslexia results in difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition (decoding) and poor spelling (encoding). Thus, a student with dyslexia may benefit from targeted instruction to address weaknesses in decoding, spelling, reading fluency, and/or writing.

Critical Components of Interventions for Dyslexia

Critical components of evidence-based reading interventions for students with dyslexia may include some or all of the following:

• Phonological Awareness/Phonemic Awareness: Understanding the sound structure of our language; how to recognize, manipulate, blend, and segment individual speech sounds in words
• Phonics/decoding: Linking the graphemes (letters) to the phonemes (sounds); learning the syllable types in our English system and how to divide syllables
• Orthography: Using spelling patterns and rules in our English system (encoding); integrating decoding and encoding
• Reading Fluency: Building strategies to support appropriate rate, accuracy, and expression
• Syntax: Using correct grammar, sentence structure, and mechanics of our language system
• Vocabulary/Morphology: Building words and increasing vocabulary through the study of base words, prefixes, roots, and suffixes
• Reading Comprehension: Using comprehension strategies and metacognitive processes to support getting meaning from text

Continuum of Interventions for Dyslexia

Dyslexia occurs on a continuum; so, too, should the interventions that serve the needs of students with dyslexia. Targeted interventions in elementary schools may be delivered within the classroom or in an alternate setting, such as a resource room or a literacy lab. In secondary schools, interventions may be delivered during an intervention period or a literacy elective class.

Intervention options for students with dyslexia correspond to the Responsive Instruction tiers. See the section entitled, “ Responsive Instruction for Students with Dyslexia ” for more information.

• Tier 1: Needs-based instruction in classroom (ex. intensified word study instruction)
• Tier 2--Less intense: Targeted explicit instruction (ex. explicit phonics lessons)
• Tier 2--More intense: Targeted specialized reading programs (ex. Orton-Gillingham based programs such as IMSE, Phonics First, Structures, etc.)
• Tier 3: Comprehensive specialized reading programs (ex. Read Well, Language Live!)

Structured Literacy Approach

Principles of effective instruction for students with dyslexia are research-based practices that have their foundations in an Orton-Gillingham approach. Included in the approach are the following characteristics:

• Direct and Explicit: Skills are taught in an explicit manner through a gradual release of instruction
• Systematic and Cumulative: A systematic scope and sequence of skills, starting at the beginning to build foundational skills
• Multisensory: Instruction that uses all learning pathways in the brain (visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile)
• Cognitive and Language-Based: Building an awareness of our language structure to activate learning
• Data-driven: Continual assessment of student performance to provide feedback to student and guide instruction

Specialized Reading Programs

If students require targeted or intensive interventions, schools may consider implementing a specialized reading program, also called a structured literacy program. FCPS offers a number of specialized reading programs which have been proven to be effective for students with dyslexia. Both general educators and special educators have access to scheduled training opportunities on these specialized reading programs throughout the year.
The array of reading and writing programs offered by FCPS are presented in this chart . An asterisk on the chart indicates that the program has been proven to have effectiveness for students with dyslexia when delivered with fidelity.   

Instructional Matching
One size does not fit all with programs for students with dyslexia. A match must be made between the students’ areas of need and the program that is developed to target that area of need. It is important that families and educators discuss the identified needs and build consensus on the services to address the need. The “ Regional Points of Contact for Dyslexia ” can help support the process of instructional matching.

Fidelity
In the event that a school team decides to use a specialized reading program to provide intervention for a student with dyslexia, the program should be used with fidelity for maximum efficacy. Fidelity means the program is implemented in the same way as the research indicated the program will be effective according to the publisher.

There are three important elements of fidelity: frequency, duration, and pacing. Frequency is how often the program is offered. Some programs are effective when used three days a week; others require five days a week. Duration means how many minutes each lesson takes. Most intervention program lessons are 30 or 45 minutes in duration. Pacing is the recommended schedule for introduction of each lesson and/or unit of study. Appropriate pacing will enable students to make appropriate progress over the course of several weeks or months of program implementation. IEP Teams determine the amount of services a particular student needs and will require in order to have the program implemented with fidelity.

Progress Monitoring
Monitoring students’ progress by measuring the target phonological awareness, decoding, fluency, and spelling skills at regular intervals is important in ensuring that the specialized reading program continues to be the appropriate instructional match. It is best practice to notify parents and guardians of progress at regular intervals, and of any proposed changes to intervention programming.

Key Components for Successful Interventions

• Student needs are specifically identified; interventions are matched to the underlying skill deficits, and are delivered by a trained professional.
• Instruction is well planned, sequenced, and implemented with fidelity.
• Students improve by building necessary skills/strategies.
• Progress is monitored on the specific skill/strategy and discussed on a consistent basis.
• Communication occurs between the interventionist and all other stakeholders, including families.
• Students continue to receive high quality core instruction.

For information about the tiers of intervention, and interventions in areas besides reading impacted by dyslexia, see the section entitled, “ Responsive Instruction for Students with Dyslexia .”

Procedures for Identification of Students with Specific Learning Disability

The process for consideration of special education eligibility begins by a referral to the Local Screening Committee (LSC) initiated by an educator, a parent or guardian. Often this referral is based on concerns regarding:

• Weak performance in areas of reading, spelling, or writing that is unexpected for the student’s age/grade.
• Characteristics or markers of dyslexia indicated by assessments, family history, or observations.

At this meeting of the LSC, information and data about the student’s progress in academic areas is shared and reviewed. A decision is made whether formal testing is necessary to address concerns relating to a possible disability. The assessment battery that is considered by the committee may include a psychological evaluation, an educational evaluation, a sociocultural evaluation as well as sometimes other related evaluation components.  No evaluations are conducted unless there is written, parent consent. See the section entitled, “ Continuum of Assessments for Dyslexia ” for additional information.

Upon completion of evaluations, the LSC and the parent(s) will reconvene to review all results and complete the process for determining whether the student qualifies as a student with a disability. The eligibility committee will use the FCPS “Basis for Committee Decision” (BCD) forms to discuss and review the criteria for any areas of eligibility the student may be suspected to qualify for. Students with dyslexia often are considered for the area of specific learning disability (LD).  Due to Virginia Regulations and FCPS Procedures, the LD criteria includes three components for eligibility:

• Exhibits pattern of underachievement
• Demonstrates processing disorder
• Requires specially designed instruction

A pattern of underachievementcan be established by consulting multiple data sources. Students with dyslexia may have developed compensatory strategies, leveraging comprehension skills to mask decoding and fluency difficulties; it is recommended that direct assessments of these skills be examined. Spelling difficulties are related to dyslexia as well, and spelling inventories and writing samples may be important data sources. Finally, students with dyslexia may exhibit difficulties at home that are less evident at school, so data should be collected about student difficulties with homework, test preparation, and other assignments.

The comprehensive evaluation results will be reviewed for the next eligibility criterion, a processing disorder. Students with dyslexia most frequently exhibit decoding, spelling or fluency difficulties that stem from a phonological processing disorder. In fact, phonological difficulty is a defining characteristic of dyslexia (see the section entitled, “ Definition and Continuum of Dyslexia .”) Other processing disorders can also contribute to reading difficulties (e.g., rapid automatized naming, processing speed, working memory.)

Another eligibility criterion states that the student must require specially designed instructionas a result of the specific learning disability that cannot reasonably be provided solely through general education. Specially designed instruction is more than short term participation in a specialized reading program. The federal law, IDEA, defines specially designed instruction as adapting, as appropriate, the content, methodology or delivery of instruction to address the unique needs of the student that result from the disability; and to ensure student access to the general curriculum. A student may have dyslexia and may require accommodations and interventions, but not necessarily require specially designed instruction.

Parents who disagree with an eligibility determination have the right to appeal a decision made by the eligibility committee. The Due Process & Eligibility office can assist parents and staff when conflict arises regarding eligibility decisions. See the FCPS Procedures for Implementing Special Education  for more information. 

Individualized Education Program

For students found eligible, an Individualized Education Program (IEP) must be developed to address the special education and related services the student will receive during the year. Services in special education will be addressed through an IEP for students with dyslexia who qualify.  Services will differ from student to student depending on the identified areas of weakness and severity of the dyslexia.

The distinguishing characteristic of dyslexia as one of the types of specific learning disability is a specific weakness at the phonological level, resulting in difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling.  If this is a specific area of need, the IEP team will propose targeted goals and specially designed instruction to address weaknesses in decoding, spelling, fluency, and/or writing .Likewise, the IEP will address goals in areas beyond literacy, if deemed appropriate for that student.

The IEP team, which includes the parents or guardians, reconvenes each year to report on progress and set new goals, propose hours of service and delivery options, and discuss accommodations. See more information in “ Accommodations for Students with Dyslexia .” An IEP may indicate the need for Assistive Technology. See “ Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia ” for more information.

As appropriate, the student can be included as a member of his or her own IEP team. Learn more about the rationale for this involvement in the section entitled, “ Self-Advocacy and Voice for Students with Dyslexia .”

Dyslexia Impacts English Learners and English Speakers Alike

• Dyslexia is neurobiological in nature.
• Dyslexia tends to run in families.
• Dyslexia presents in different ways depending on the language written or spoken.
• Dyslexia will present in an English learner’s home language, not just in English.

Early Reading Difficulties are Expected, Not Necessarily Dyslexia

• Students learning to read in a language other than their native language are likely to exhibit poor reading skills for some period of time while learning the second language (Everatt et al., 2010; Youman, 2012).
• When English learners are acquiring English they lack both vocabulary knowledge, phonological awareness and phonics skills. This is a normal stage of English language development.
• Students developing language in a bilingual setting may often fall behind their monolingual peers for a time.
• Students literate in their home language may experience interference from that language as they learn English; this is not dyslexia.

Home Language Matters

A writing system is a set of symbols that can represent individual phonemes or sounds (alphabets) or syllables (syllabaries). There are also writing systems, such as Chinese and Japanese, which use symbols to represent both sound and meaning (semanto-phonetic). There are also languages such as American Sign Language that do not have a corresponding written system. In fact, only about one-third of the world’s 6,912 languages have writing systems .

The characteristics demonstrating dyslexia may be different depending on the type of language the student speaks. Some languages are written with syllabic representation rather than letters (such as Japanese Kana) and others may be logographic, meaning the symbol looks like the object it represents (such as Chinese).Languages with a phonemic orthography (such as Spanish, Italian, Turkish, Finnish, Czech and Polish) have a close correlation of letters to sounds.

In English there are over 250 possible letter combinations (called graphemes) to represent 44 sounds (called phonemes). (Moats, 2005). For example, the long /a/ sound can be spelled in at least six different ways: a, ai, ei, ay, ey, and a-e. One reason for this variety of graphemes is that English has been influenced by several languages, primarily Anglo-Saxon, French, Latin, and Greek (Moats, 2005). An English Learner may require more instruction in spelling than he or she may have required in his or her home language: spelling challenges may be expected and may not constitute a sign of dyslexia.

Questions to Consider

• Has instruction in English been appropriate?
• What is the student’s current English language proficiency level and have they made progress over time?

Determining if an English Learner has dyslexia

• Characteristics of dyslexia will appear in both the student’s native language and in English; assessments done in both languages will help distinguish English learning difficulties from dyslexia.
• Conferences with the family will help to determine the student’s history in home language development. Ask when the student learned to speak and if they had any difficulties learning to read and write in the home language.)
• Testing in the student’s native language for skills such as phonemic awareness will be most beneficial.
• In FCPS the Dual Language Assessment and Consultation team provides services to assist school teams seeking solutions for English Learners who are experiencing ongoing or significant academic difficulties.  Services are provided through a consultation and when appropriate, through a dual language assessment.

A Word of Caution

The definition of dyslexia indicates that the difficulties are “often unexpectedin relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.”

In the case of English Learners, difficulties are not unexpected, and the difficulties with the phonological component of language are often accompanied by difficulties in oral language comprehension as well. Thus, the characteristics of dyslexia are often not truly recognizable until English oral language comprehension skills have been developed and begin to outpace the skill development in the phonological component of language.

There are 7 integral factors that should also be considered when determining whether or not an English Learner indeed has a disability.  These are: learning environment factors, personal and family factors, academic achievement and instructional factors, previous schooling factors, cross cultural factors, physical and psychological factors, and oral language and literacy factors.

Characteristics of second language acquisition can look like dyslexia.  We must be careful not to diagnose early in the student’s acquisition of English. It is important to ensure that appropriate English language development instruction and scaffolds are in place for the student.

For books, articles and websites about English Learners and Dyslexia, see “ Dyslexia Resources .”

References

• Everatt, J., Ovampo, D., Veii, K., Nenopoulou S., Smythe I., al Mannai, H., & Elbeheri G. (2010). Dyslexia in biscriptal readers. In N. Brunswick, S. McDougall, & P. de Mornay Davies (Eds.), Reading and dyslexia in different orthographies (pp. 221–245). Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.
• Moats, L. C. (2005). How spelling supports reading: And why it is more regular and predictable than you think.  American Educator, Winter 2005/06 , 12-22, 42-43.
  Youman, M. (2012). Dyslexia in different languages and English language learners. In N. Mather & B. J. Wendling, Essentials of dyslexia: Assessment and intervention (pp, 223-240). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons

Prevalence of Twice Exceptionality and Dyslexia

Research indicates that between 2-5% of all students are identified as being gifted and having a disability (Dix & Schafer, 1996; Whitmore, 1981). The largest subgroup of twice-exceptional students is specific learning disability with giftedness (National Association for Gifted Children, Twice-Exceptionality White Paper ). In turn, the most prevalent disability under the category of specific learning disability is dyslexia. Thus, most students who have been identified as twice exceptional are gifted students with dyslexia.

Challenge of Identification

Giftedness masks dyslexia and dyslexia masks giftedness. In the early grades, the twice exceptional student often presents with creativity, reasoning, critical thinking and strong oral language skills, while at the same time, he or she may experience difficulties learning letters and sounds and developing automatic decoding and spelling skills. Often one profile (the profile of strengths or the profile of difficulties) is recognized and not the other. See the printable document, “Signs of Dyslexia” to see these possible strengths and challenges presented alongside one another for each stage of a student’s education.

FCPS offers a continuum of advanced academic services for students K-12 that builds upon students’ individual strengths and skills and maximizes academic potential for all learners. To learn more visit Advanced Academic Programs .

Myths About Twice Exceptional Students

• Myth: Twice exceptional students can compensate and succeed without added support.
  
  Teachers are often concerned that providing interventions or accommodations for a twice exceptional learner is unnecessary. In fact, some teachers may be concerned that providing additional support to these students might not be fair to other students who are not receiving the interventions or accommodations, because it can lead the twice exceptional learner to outperform his or her peers. This requires a lot of discussion on the importance of a student-centered approach to education in which every student is treated individually and receives whatever he or she needs in order to reach his or her potential.
  
  A gifted learner who is provided with special education services or accommodations as dictated by his or her needs may indeed perform at higher levels than a typically achieving student who is not receiving either category of services. Accommodations or specialized instruction for a twice exceptional learner are intended to provide him or her access to the appropriate advanced level of instruction and means to demonstrate understanding without the interference of a disability.
• Myth: Twice exceptional students can and should do more work.
  
  Simply assigning more work at the same level does not lead to greater levels of learning. For a student eligible for both Advanced Academic services and special education services for dyslexia, an increased reading and writing workload can actually interfere with their access to rich learning opportunities.
  
  Gifted students should not simply be given MORE work; they should be given more rigorous work: meaningful, engaging, complex tasks that require critical and creative thinking. Students with dyslexia should be supported so that their weaknesses in decoding or spelling do not prohibit them from full, active participation in these tasks.
  
  Increased academic rigor may include four elements: Concept-based curriculum, Problem-based learning; Students working as experts; and Problem Solving.
• Myth: Twice exceptional students should be self-motivated learners.
  
  There are many social emotional impacts of dyslexia that can affect a student’s self-esteem, interfere with the willingness to take academic risks, or decrease the motivation to learn, even if a student is also eligible for Advanced Academic services. If learning has been overly associated with reading and writing rather than other forms of inquiry, a student may be perceived as being unmotivated or lazy behavior.
  
  For a twice exceptional learner with dyslexia, the home and school contexts may offervery different opportunities and reveal distinct needs, which is one reason why home-school communication is so vital. We encourage families and educators (both special education and gifted educators) to establish a partnership. It takes the expertise of numerous individuals to problem-solve and find out what works best for each student. See “Families and Schools as Partners” for more information.
  
  A focus on a growth mindset and on developing executive functioning skills is doubly important. First, it can help these students overcome the social emotional barriers dyslexia has introduced. Learn more in the section entitled, “Social Emotional Impacts of Dyslexia.”
  
  The ultimate goal is for the student to work toward self-understanding, as this is the most powerful route towards self-advocacy and success. Finding and serving twice exceptional learners is a complex task that requires commitment and support on multiple levels to ensure that every student who has the capacity to succeed in advanced academic programs has access, accommodations, and support. See the section entitled, “Student Voice and Self-Advocacy” for more information.
  
  Although twice exceptionality can pose particular challenges, schools are required to provide students who are identified as twice exceptional with the appropriate services they require to achieve.  Gifted students may qualify as having a disability and be eligible for an IEP or sometimes a Section 504 plan.

References

• Dix, J., & Schafer, S. (1996). From paradox to performance: practical strategies for identifying and teaching GLD students. Gifted Child Today , January/February, 22–31.
• Everatt, J., Ovampo, D., Veii, K., Nenopoulou S., Smythe I., al Mannai, H., & Elbeheri G. (2010). Dyslexia in biscriptal readers. In N. Brunswick, S. McDougall, & P. de Mornay Davies (Eds.), Reading and dyslexia in different orthographies (pp. 221–245). Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.
• National Association for Gifted Children. Twice Exceptionality White Paper . Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1/30/2017 from https://www.nagc.org/sites/default/files/Position%20Statement/twice%20exceptional.pdf
• Youman, M. (2012). Dyslexia in different languages and English language learners. In N. Mather & B. J. Wendling, Essentials of dyslexia: Assessment and intervention (pp, 223-240). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
• Whitmore, J.R. (1981). Gifted children with handicapping conditions: A new frontier. Exceptional Children, 48 , 106–114.

Dyslexia occurs on a continuum and may look different for different students, in part, because its effects may be exacerbated by a variety of other conditions.

One reason why dyslexia manifests itself differently from one individual to the next is that many students with dyslexia can be affected by co-existing or comorbid challenges. Some students with dyslexia also have Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), dysgraphia, dyscalculia, speech/language disorders, executive functioning disorder, and/or anxiety. A description of the most common conditions to accompany dyslexia are described in the text that follows.

Anxiety

Anxiety is a frequent emotional symptom demonstrated by students with dyslexia.  For some students, even when in the most supportive school/home environments, frustration, confusion, and anticipation of failure due to their own learning disability often impacts their ability to be successful. Schools and families can work together to provide systematic supports and interventions to enable students to learn to cope with anxiety. Learn more in the section entitled, “ Social Emotional Impacts of Dyslexia .”

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Dyslexia and ADHD are two distinct conditions that are often comorbid, however, one does not cause the other. A student who is diagnosed with ADHD can present with characteristics such as inattention, distractibility, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. According to the International Dyslexia Association (IDA), it is estimated that 30% of those with dyslexia have ADHD as well, making it one of the most common co-existing conditions with dyslexia. Upon completion of an evaluation, a physician or psychologist can diagnose the presence of ADHD in a student.

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia is a mathematical disability in which a person has unexpected difficulty solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts, such as time, measurement, and spatial reasoning, as defined by the International Dyslexia Association (IDA). Like dyslexia, dyscalculia can occur in people at all levels of cognitive ability.

Many of the characteristics of dyscalculia are similar to the characteristics of dyslexia. If a student has problems with working memory, he or she is likely to have trouble memorizing math facts or completing multi-step calculations.

Dysgraphia

The IDA defines dysgraphia as the condition of impaired letter writing by hand, that is, disabled handwriting. This disability can interfere with learning to spell words in writing and the speed of composing and writing text. This condition may occur alone or in the presence of dyslexia. 

For instructional purposes, it is important for the teacher to be able to distinguish whether difficulties lie in handwriting only, spelling only, word reading and spelling only (dyslexia), or a combination of handwriting, spelling, and word reading. Students with dysgraphia may benefit from explicit handwriting instruction and early intervention. Keyboarding accommodations can often help these students to compose text more readily.

Executive Functioning Disorder

Executive functioning is the use of skills to organize and act on information. The executive functions are a diverse, but related and overlapping, set of skills that help people manage and control all life tasks.

The following are components of executive functioning

1. Metacognition, or the awareness of one’s own thought processes
2. Working memory
3. Attention and focus
4. Self-control
5. Goal-directed persistence
6. Cognitive Flexibility/Shift   

Students who have challenges in executive functioning may have difficulty paying attention, remembering details and maintaining control in order to analyze, plan, and organize information to complete tasks. Students may struggle with self-regulation, time management, self-motivation, and metacognitive skills to help with their learning and thinking processes. Executive functioning issues are often present in students diagnosed with ADHD and or dyslexia; however, students who struggle with reading and writing, can also present with these characteristics due to other mitigating factors such as frustration, discouragement, fear of failure, or lack of motivation.

Speech/Language Disorders

Students with dyslexia may also present with common speech/language disorders involving problems in the articulation of sounds and the accuracy of sound production and/or atypical oral language development. Although impairments in language and reading are distinct disorders, they are often closely related conditions. Speech and language are often evaluated as part of a comprehensive evaluation for dyslexia. Speech/language services are accessed through an Individualized Education Program (IEP), for students who qualify. Speech and language disorders can be a stand-alone category of eligibility for special education services as well as a co-existing condition.

Parent and Family Engagement

We know from over 30 years of research that families have a major influence on student achievement (Butler & Edmonson, 2009; Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009).  The more families support their children’s learning and educational progress, the more their children tend to do well in school and continue their education.

Families are sometimes at a loss for how to support their family members with dyslexia. Families may have trouble understanding why reading and writing are so difficult for otherwise successful children. Often, the signs of dyslexia can be confusing as family and schools strive to figure out the source of difficulty. Parents and guardians who partner with the school during evaluation, identification, and intervention processes are able to shed more light on the needs of their children for whom this disability is sometimes called the “hidden disability.”

The work it takes to get their children the help they need can feel like a full-time commitment but families have partners in these efforts: FCPS educators. Families can consult the FCPS Family Resource Center for books, resources and workshops about dyslexia. See the section entitled, Dyslexia Resources  for additional print and web resources.

The most important partner in this journey is the school. Families can reach out to schools in partnership to support their children with dyslexia. Students succeed academically and socially when families and educators work as partners through cooperative and collaborative relationships. Remember that the child’s experience at home is an important data source to be shared with the school team.

Working with Schools

Students succeed academically and socially when families and educators work as partners through cooperative and collaborative relationships.

If families are unsure where to start in working with the school they can view on of our Family Guides to Dyslexia or our Dyslexia Resources (includes Regional Points of Contact for Dyslexia).

• Family Guide to Dyslexia: Elementary Schools
• Family Guide to Dyslexia: Secondary Schools
• Dyslexia Resources

Tips for Positive Support

It is important that families and educators alike remember that the student with dyslexia is so much more than his or her reading disability. Often, dyslexia can take a toll on a student’s self-esteem (see the section entitled, Social Emotional Impacts of Dyslexia ). Students with dyslexia often have many strengths that should be celebrated and emphasized throughout their school and home experiences (Scruton & McNamara, 2015).

Here are some strategies for families and educators to create a positive support system for students with dyslexia.

• Encourage a positive self-image
  • Celebrate successes
  • Focus on strengths
  • Minimize homework stress by setting time limits, providing breaks, and discussing homework accommodations with the school
• Instill a love of learning
  • Read aloud or listen together to books of high interest
  • Use games to reinforce learning
  • Share in the joy of learning
• Reward the effort, not just the end product (e.g., working hard for an hour on editing vs. producing an error-free essay.)
  • Build in extra time to avoid anxiety
  • Break larger assignments into smaller parts to instill confidence
  • Acknowledge that school work may be difficult
• Find a balance between appropriate intervention to improve skills and accommodations to promote learning
  • Does the student need extra time on tests?
  • Would assistive technology resources be appropriate?
  • Are audio books available?
  • Can typing or dictating an assignment ease frustration?
• Talk about dyslexia in a positive way
• Encourage self-advocacy skills
• Involve the student, as appropriate, in IEP and 504 plan meetings
• Discuss accommodations and ask for student input

For more information about how to empower students with dyslexia, see the section entitled, Self-Advocacy and Voice for Students with Dyslexia .

Specific Academic Supports for StudentsStudents with dyslexia struggle with reading and writing tasks. Here are some concrete ways families can support these students at home.

• Define the purpose of “reading” as making meaning from text.
• Praise students for making improvements in their word reading skills.
• Make reading a positive experience. Read together and hold discussions about the meaning of the text.
• Expose students to books that might be above their decoding level through audio books and reading to them. See Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia  for a variety of sources of audio books that can be used at home as well as at school.
• Show students that they can be their own problem solvers. Practice these skills.
• Work on decoding by finding appropriately leveled books in collaboration with students’ teachers. Use high interest materials such as newspaper sports pages, cookbooks, and graphic novels.
• Support academic talents that are not reading-based.

References

• Butler, C. & Edmonson, S. L. (2009). Fostering resiliency: Making schools a better place for students with dyslexia. In Achiles, C. M., Irby, B. J., Alford, B., & Perreault, G. (Eds.), The 2009 Yearbook of the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (109-118). Lancaster, PA: DEStech Publications.
• Fan, X. & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13 (1), 1-22.
• Hill, N. E. & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45 , 740-763.
• Scruton, H. & McNamara, J. (2015). An interactionist approach to learning disabilities. International Journal of Education, 7 (4), 43-52.

Dyslexia can pose unique social and emotional challenges for students. Students with dyslexia may have other areas of learning that come easily to them, and when they are confronted with text they cannot decode or words they cannot spell, these difficulties are unexpected. They may feel like “something is wrong” with them because reading and writing should come as easily to them as do other areas of learning.

Some students’ cognitive abilities can heighten self-awareness of their struggles, which can lead to feelings of frustration and failure. Over time, the sense that reading and writing should be easy for them but isn’t may take a toll on self-esteem (Ghisi, Bottesi, Re, Cerea & Mammarella, 2016; International Dyslexia Association, retrieved from https://dyslexiaida.org/the-dyslexia-stress-anxiety-connection/ on 2/21/17; Ridsdale, 2004).

Cognitive abilities can also heighten a student’s awareness of others. A student with dyslexia may compare himself or herself to peers of the same cognitive abilities who do not struggle with reading and writing. Students with dyslexia may feel alienated from peers or strive to hide their difficulties in an effort to fit in which can pose a challenge to their social relationships (Reinke et al., 2008).   

More Than Their Dyslexia

All students demonstrate strengths and challenges across educational and non-academic areas. When working with students with dyslexia, it is essential to help them come to understand that they have a variety of abilities and are not limited by the challenges they may face.

The goal is to support the development of resilient students. Resiliency is defined as the capacity to withstand or recover quickly from difficult circumstances. When students with dyslexia are resilient, they can face their challenges and find ways to handle them. The teaching and supporting of resiliency and promoting of self-esteem are crucial for success (Butler & Edmonson, 2009; Ridsdale, 2004).

Tips For Supporting Students' Social Emotional Needs

It is important for parents or guardians of a child with dyslexia to recognize and support his or her feelings, thoughts and ideas by discussing how he or she is impacted by dyslexia. Students need adults to model positive attitudes in the face of adversity who will teach them to believe in themselves. They thrive with praise which acknowledges their efforts rather than praise which rewards the outcome.

Students with dyslexia may demonstrate anxiety, depression, and frustration (Butler & Edmonson, 2009; Ghisi et al., 2016; Ridsdale, 2004). In working with students, it will help to identify achievable goals, celebrate small successes, recognize and celebrate effort and progress in addition to results, identify underlying feelings (such as fear or frustration), and validate them while supporting a focus on effort over achievement.

Specific Social Emotional Supports for Students

• Together with the student, identify a trusted adult at school to whom he or she can turn for support and encouragement
• Teach students self-advocacy skills. Use scenarios to practice this skill set. See the section entitled, “ Self-Advocacy and Voice for Students with Dyslexia ” for more information.
• Explain dyslexia to the student while reinforcing age-appropriate skills in other subject areas.
• Support the development of skills and nonacademic talents in any valued activity to enhance self-esteem, such as athletics, the arts and other creative ventures.
• Find opportunities for these students to help others or be leaders for others during different activities.
• Promote balance between reading and writing and other preferred extracurricular activities.
• See outside resources to support the student’s social emotional well-being.
• Join in-person or virtual communities of people who are facing similar struggles.

See “ Dyslexia Resources ” for links to dyslexia communities.

Putting School in Perspective

Students with dyslexia may need to rely upon the adults in their lives to help them put their school challenges in perspective. Many famous adults with dyslexia look back on their school years as a time when they felt they would never be successful in life because they didn’t feel successful as readers and writers. Families and educators can remind students that life beyond school, both in the present and in the future, is not defined by their difficulties but by their strengths.

With more tools for differentiating instruction and accessing accommodations, students with dyslexia can feel highly successful in and out of school. Appropriate supports and a strengths-based focus can allow our students the opportunity to feel successful throughout the school years (Scruton & McNamara, 2015).

When students with dyslexia have an opportunity to pursue their passions, practice their gifts, and choose careers based on their talents, they are able to be successful. The adults in their lives can help students with dyslexia maintain a positive outlook on the future and its possibilities.

References

• Butler, C. & Edmonson, S. L. (2009). Fostering resiliency: Making schools a better place for students with dyslexia. In Achiles, C. M., Irby, B. J., Alford, B., & Perreault, G. (Eds.), The 2009 Yearbook of the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (109-118). Lancaster, PA: DEStech Publications, Inc.
• Ghisi, M., Bottesi, G., Re, A. M., Cerea, S., & Mammarella, I. C. (2016). Socioemotional features and resilience in Italian university students with and without dyslexia. Frontiers in Psychology, 7 , 478.
  International Dyslexia Association. (2013). The dyslexia-stress-anxiety connection: Implications for academic performance and social interactions . Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association. Retrieved from https://dyslexiaida.org/the-dyslexia-stress-anxiety-connection / on February 21, 2017.
• International Dyslexia Association. (2002). Definition of dyslexia . Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association. Retrieved from https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/ on February 21, 2017.
  National Center on Disability and Journalism (2017). Disability language style guide . Tempe: AZ: Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication at Arizona State University. Retrieved from http://ncdj.org/style-guide/ on 3/7/17.
• Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., Petras, H., & Ialongo, N. S. (2008). Empirically derived subtypes of child academic and behavior problems: Co-occurrence and distal outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36 , 759-770.
• Ridsdale, J. (2004). Dyslexia and self-esteem. In M. Turner, & J. Rack (Eds.), The Study of Dyslexia (249-279). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  Scruton, H. & McNamara, J. (2015). An interactionist approach to learning disabilities. International Journal of Education, 7 (4), 43-52.

Student Self-Advocacy

Self-advocacy provides students with the skills needed to speak up for their needs in the learning environment. When students with dyslexia identify and communicate their needs in the learning environment, they are more involved in shaping their own educational experiences, ultimately leading to greater confidence, self-awareness, and success. Studies have shown that students who are given the chance to participate in decisions being made about their lives are more likely to earn higher incomes one year after graduation (Wehmeyer, 2004). Promoting students’ self-determination has been identified as a best practice in special education. Research on students with disabilities demonstrates that self-determination promotes goal attainment and access to the general education curriculum (Shogren, Palmer, Wehmeyer, Williams-Diehm, & Little, 2012).

Students must come to understand their own experience with dyslexia so they can seek out the supports they need to maximize their strengths and minimize their limitations. This self-advocacy will be essential for success in college, career, and relationships in adulthood.

Student Voice

Student voice is present when adults value students’ expertise, opinions, ideas, and solicit their contributions to shape and create school and classroom experiences. When students believe their voices matter, they are more likely to be invested and engaged (Quaglia & Corso, 2014). Encourage students to describe, in their own words, how their dyslexia affects them in all areas of their life, including how they learn best, and what strategies can be used to support them. This awareness will empower them to be self-advocates and partners in their learning.

Developing Self-Advocacy and Promoting Student Voice

Creating emotionally safe environments is vital to promoting learning (Quaglia & Corso, 2014). Students who feel safe are more likely to pose questions and advocate for their learning needs. Examples of ways families and educators can support the development of self-advocacy and the empowerment of student voice are listed below.

Engage in Active Listening

• Dialogue with students about how they learn best. Implement some of their ideas at home or in the classroom to honor their input.
• Support students in articulating how their dyslexia affects them in all areas of their lives.
• Learn about students’ aspirations for the future in order to support the development of self-worth, engagement, and purpose (Quaglia & Corso, 2014).
  • Self-Worth: Students know they are valued members of their school community and have the ability to achieve personally and socially.
  • Engagement: Students become deeply involved in their learning process.
  • Purpose: Students take responsibility for who and what they want to be and do.

Facilitate Collaboration

• Encourage students to find their voice. Ask them to describe what dyslexia means to them, and to identify their strengths and areas for growth.
• Facilitate opportunities for students to explore and share what strategies help most.
• Familiarize students with the goals and accommodations on their IEPS or 504s.
• Encourage students to contribute to or participate in their IEP or 504 meetings, as appropriate.
• Encourage students to reach out to all teachers at the beginning of the year to communicate what makes them successful.

Foster a Growth Mindset and Risk-Taking

• Recognize effort in order to promote a “growth mindset,” the belief that students can learn more or become smarter if they work hard and persevere. (Dweck, 2016).
• Support students in developing effort, perseverance, and kindness.
• Teach students to evaluate their own efforts, and set ambitious yet achievable goals.
• Help students reflect on the learning strategies they use and explore alternative ones when they struggle.
• Celebrate the effort and perseverance more than the end product.
• Allow students to take calculated risks, and communicate that mistakes are expected and failure can lead to learning.

For web links to support the development of student self-advocacy, see the section entitled, “ Dyslexia Resources .”

References

• Dweck, C. S. (2016).  Mindset: The new psychology of success (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Penguin Random House.
• Quaglia, R.J. & Corso, M.J (2014). Student voice: The instrument of change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Shogren, K. A., Palmer, S. B., Wehmeyer, M.L., Williams-Diehm, K., & Little, T.D. (2012).  Effect of Intervention with the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction on Access and Goal Attainment. Remedial and Special Education, 33 , 320-330.
• Wehmeyer, M., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2000). A national survey of teachers’ promotion of self-determination and student directed learning. Journal of Special Education , 34 , 293-301.

accommodations:practices, supports, or services provided to help a student access the curriculum and validly demonstrate learning. Accommodations are provided to support equitable access during instruction and assessments for students with disabilities, and intended to lessen the impact of the student’s disability on his or her educational achievement. Accommodations are individualized and based on a student’s needs.

accuracy:reading the words in a selection correctly.

assistive technology: any item, equipment or system used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of people with disabilities.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a brain disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

automaticity: fast, effortless word recognition.

co-existing or comorbid conditions: two or more conditions that exist simultaneously.

compensatory strategies: activities that promote the acquisition of reflective cognitive learning styles.  Using strengths as a reader to compensate for weaknesses.

core instruction: another term for classroom instruction, serves as the common center of instruction for all students, provides students with opportunities to apply taught strategies to authentic meaning-making experiences.

cumulative:any skill or strategy continuously applied with increasing complexity.

decodable texts: a type of text often used in beginning reading instruction which includes words readers can pronounce using the phonics skills they have been taught.

decoding: the ability to apply knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words.

diagnostic assessment: an assessment often administered one-on-one, focused gathering information about selected areas or domain of knowledge.  It can provide educators with information about student needs in order to plan tailored instruction or intervention.

differentiated instruction: an approach to teaching that provides different avenues for learning in terms of varying the content, process, and product based on a student's readiness, interest and learning profile.

direct instruction: teaching skills in an explicit manner through a gradual release of instruction.

double-deficit hypothesis: a hypothesis presented by Dr. Maryanne Wolf of Tufts University that dyslexia can stem from a single deficit in phoneme awareness or naming speed or in both.

dyscalculia: a mathematical disability in which a person has unexpected difficulty solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts, such as time, measurement, and spatial reasoning, as defined by the International Dyslexia Association (IDA).

dysgraphia: a learning disability that affects writing abilities and can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper, as defined by the IDA.

dyslexia: a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/ or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge, as defined by the IDA.

evidence-based: effective educational strategies supported by evidence and research, as defined by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2002.

executive functioning: a set of processes that have to do with managing oneself and one's resources in order to achieve a goal (includes neurologically-based skills involving mental control and self-regulation).

explicit:stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for confusion or doubt.

fidelity: the delivery of practices and programs in the way in which they were designed and intended to be delivered, accurately and consistently with a high level of quality.

fluency: the ability to read text accurately with sufficient pacing, phrasing, and expression so that deep comprehension is possible.

fluent word recognition: the ability to read words accurately with sufficient pacing.

growth mindset: the belief that the most basic abilities of an individual can be developed through dedication and hard work--brains and talent are just a starting point.

immediate corrective feedback: the practice of providing a student with formal or informal feedback on his or her performance.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): a federal law that requires schools to serve the education needs of eligible students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment through an individualized education program reasonably calculated to enable the student to make progress appropriate in light of the student’s circumstances.  

Interventions: evidence-based, systematic, and explicit instruction that targets a specific area of need. It is provided in addition to core instruction and is intentionally designed to increase performance in relation to a specific, measureable goal. Interventions must be based on valid and current performance data, delivered with fidelity, and require ongoing progress monitoring.

language comprehension:the ability to correctly process word and phrase meanings, sentence grammar, and discourse or text structure.

letter recognition:the ability to visually recognize letters of the alphabet.

letter-sound recognition: the ability to identify the sound or sounds each letter makes.

multisensory:a teaching technique that uses more than one sense (e.g., auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic) to help a student learn.

neurobiological disorder: an illness of the nervous system caused by genetic, metabolic, or other biological factors.

Orton-Gillingham approach: a methodology used to develop accuracy and fluency in reading and spelling.  The Orton-Gillingham principles of effective phonics instruction for students with dyslexia uses direct, explicit, systematic, sequential instruction that is multisensory in nature; provides cumulative review; and includes immediate, corrective feedback. 

phonemic awareness: a subset of phonological awareness in which listeners are able to hear, identify and manipulate phonemes, the smallest units of sound that differentiate meaning. Separating the spoken word "cat" into three distinct phonemes, /k/, /a/, and /t/, requires phonemic awareness.

phonics: a reading method that directly teaches the relationships between the sounds and letters of an alphabetic writing system.

phonological: system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features, and rules which specify how sounds interact with each other.

phonological awareness: a variety of activities demonstrating an awareness of the structure of spoken words, including segmenting (or breaking apart), blending (or putting together), and manipulating (or changing) the spoken syllables and sounds in words.

processing disorder: a deficiency in a person’s ability to effectively use the information gathered by the senses. The issue is not the result of impaired hearing, impaired vision, attention disorders, or an intellectual disability.

rapid automatized naming:a task that measures how quickly individuals can name aloud objects, colors, or symbols (letters or digits).

reading comprehension:the ability to understand what one is reading.

remediation:The act of remedying an area of instructional need for a student (e.g., teaching a student how to blend speech sounds together to pronounce a word).

Responsive Instruction (RI):a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) through which teams make instructional decisions based on data in order to provide differentiated classroom instruction and the necessary academic, behavior, and student wellness supports for all students across all schools.

secondary consequences of dyslexia:may include difficulties in reading comprehension and/or written expression. May also include social emotional impact.

self-advocacy: when a student understands his or her own strengths and weaknesses, knows what is needed to succeed, and communicates these needs with other people.

specially designed instruction: as defined in IDEA, adapting, as appropriate, the content, methodology or delivery of instruction to address the unique needs of the student that result from the student’s disability; and to ensure access of the student to the general curriculum.

specific learning disability: As defined by 34 CFR 300.8(c) (10), a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Specific learning disability does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disabilities; of emotional disabilities; of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (see also § 22.1-213 of the Code of Virginia).                                                                                                     
spelling: the process of writing the letters of a word in their precise sequence according to accepted usage.

structured literacy program: instruction that explicitly focuses on systematic word-
identification/decoding strategies, is systematic and cumulative, explicit, and diagnostic.

systematic and sequential: step by step in a predetermined order.

twice-exceptional:refers to intellectually gifted students who have some form of disability and are considered exceptional both because of their intellectual gifts and their special needs.

word recognition:the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly.

working memory:the preservation of information while processing the same or different information; tasks often require transforming the information in some way.

writing composition:using complete sentences to express thoughts or ideas on paper.

The possible strengths and the possible challenges typical of students with dyslexia at different stages in their education.

Concerned about your child’s reading and/or spelling? Worried that your child might have dyslexia? Turn to your child’s school for support so that together, you can develop a plan to address and monitor your child’s needs. If your child currently receives special education services, please consult with your child’s IEP team.

Family Action

Talk to your child’s teacher about your child’s performance at school. Consider asking questions such as the following:

• How strong are my child’s early literacy skills?
• How is my child doing in decoding, fluency, and spelling?
• How do my child’s recent assessment results relate to grade level expectations?
• Has my child received any extra help or interventions?

Also, share your concerns about your child’s reading and writing as well as observations from home.

Classroom Action

Your child’s teacher may take steps to provide extra support for your child. These may include the following:

• Additional small group instruction delivered in reading or writing workshop;
• Small group intervention delivered during reading or writing workshop;
• Small group intervention delivered during another part of the day, such as an intervention block.

These supports may be provided by the classroom teacher, an instructional assistant, or a resource teacher.

School Action

Depending on the intervention your child needs, and depending on how your child responds to the extra support provided by the classroom teacher, the teacher may elicit the help of the multidisciplinary team responsible for planning and monitoring interventions, sometimes called the Responsive Instruction Core Team.

The team may consult with your child’s teachers and collect work samples. The team may review your child’s assessment results to plan next steps.

Next steps may include an intensive intervention or a referral to the Local Screening Committee. ¹

¹ If at any time you suspect your child has a disability, you have the right to make a referral to the Local Screening Committee. Visit https://www.fcps.edu/registration/child-find for information.

Local Screening Committee

At any time, you may refer your child to the Local Screening Committee through the Child Find ² process. The Local Screening Committee will meet to review your child’s literacy performance, extra support, and progress. At this meeting, you will have the opportunity to share your concerns. Some issues the team may discuss include the following:

• Review the impact of any extra support already received;
• Determine if further evaluation is necessary;
• Plan future supports that address areas of struggle;
• Consider the need for a structured literacy program.

² https://www.fcps.edu/registration/child-find

Connect with the Right Contact

If you feel you need additional support in identifying and meeting your child’s needs, you may connect with the appropriate regional point of contact for dyslexia. These points of contact can support you with the following areas of concern:

• Dyslexia Identification & Evaluation
  • Regional representative from School Psychology Services
• Core Instruction & Assessment
  • Regional representative from Instructional Services Department
• Intervention & Accommodations
  • Regional representative from Office of Special Education Instruction

Additional Resources

For regional points of contact, a matrix of structured literacy programs, and additional resources visit the Dyslexia Information page .

For more information: Gina North, FCPS Dyslexia Specialist, [email protected]

Concerned that your child has become frustrated or anxious about school? Worried about your child’s overall academic performance, reading and/or writing? Some level of anxiety, depression, or frustration in and out of school is not unusual for young adults, however students with dyslexia may demonstrate unexpected social and emotional challenges that stem from reading and writing difficulties. Turn to your child’s school for support. Together, you can develop a plan to address and monitor your child’s needs. If your child currently receives special education services, please consult with your child’s IEP team.

Talk to Your Child

Students are empowered when the adults in their lives involve them in exploring strengths and challenges. Consider these questions when talking to your child:

• How do you learn best? What have you noticed about yourself as a learner?
• How is school going for you this year? What is going well? What is difficult for you?
• What aspects of reading and writing do you enjoy?
• What aspects of reading and writing do you find challenging?

Talk to the School Counselor

A conversation with your child’s school counselor can help explore questions about your child’s academic experience.

• Does your child have trouble completing reading and writing assignments?
• Is your child behaving differently or anxious about school?
• Does your child have difficulty learning new concepts with challenging vocabulary?
• Does your child avoid writing or produce short pieces when writing cannot be avoided?
• Is your child’s writing difficult to read due to poor handwriting or spelling?

School Action

Once you’ve met with the school counselor, he or she can initiate school action. The counselor will consult with your child’s teachers and collect work samples for review by the multi-disciplinary team responsible for planning and monitoring interventions. The counselor and team may review your child’s instructional history and current course enrollment to plan next steps. Next steps may include incorporating an intervention or a referral to the Local Screening Committee. ¹

¹ If at any time you suspect your child has a disability, you have the right to make a referral to the Local Screening Committee. Visit https://www.fcps.edu/registration/child-find for information.

Local Screening Committee

At any time, you may refer your child to the Local Screening Committee through the Child Find ² process. The Local Screening Committee will meet to review your child’s literacy performance, extra support, and progress. At this meeting, you will have the opportunity to share your concerns. Some issues the team may discuss include the following:

• Review the impact of any extra support already received;
• Determine if further evaluation is necessary;
• Plan future supports that address areas of struggle;
• Consider the need for a structured literacy program.

² https://www.fcps.edu/registration/childfind

Connect with the Right Contact

If you feel you need additional support in identifying and meeting your child’s needs, you may connect with the appropriate regional point of contact for dyslexia. These points of contact can support you with the following areas of concern:

• Dyslexia Identification & Evaluation
  • Regional representative from School Psychology Services
• Core Instruction & Assessment
  • Regional representative from Instructional Services Department
• Intervention & Accommodations
  • Regional representative from Office of Special Education Instruction

Additional Resources

For regional points of contact, a matrix of structured literacy programs, and additional resources  visit the Dyslexia Information page .

For more information: Gina North, FCPS Dyslexia Specialist, [email protected]